Sexual orientation is the perpetual pattern of romantic or sexual attraction (or combination of these) for people of the opposite gender or sex, sex or gender, or for both sexes or more than one sex. These attractions generally include under heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality, while asexuality (lack of sexual attraction to others) is sometimes identified as a fourth category.
These categories are aspects of the more nuanced nature of sexual identity and terminology. For example, people may use other labels, such as pansexual or polysexual , or not at all. According to the American Psychological Association, sexual orientation "also refers to a person's sense of identity based on these attractions, related behaviors, and membership in the community of others sharing the attraction." Androphilia and gynephilia is a term used in behavioral sciences to describe sexual orientation as an alternative to gender-conceptual binaries. Androphilia describes sexual attraction to masculinity; gynephilia describes sexual attraction to femininity. The terms sexual preferences largely overlap with sexual orientation, but are generally distinguished in psychological research. Someone who identifies himself as bisexual, for example, may sexually prefer one sex over another. sexual preferences may also suggest a voluntary choice level, whereas the scientific consensus is that sexual orientation is not an option.
Scientists do not know the exact cause of sexual orientation, but they believe that it is caused by complex interactions of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences. They love biological-based theories, which lead to genetic factors, the early environment of the uterus, both, or the inclusion of genetic and social factors. There is no substantive evidence to suggest that early childhood experience or experience plays a role when it comes to sexual orientation. Decades of research have shown that sexual orientation revolves around the continuum, from exclusive interest to the opposite sex to exclusive attraction to same-sex.
Sexual orientation is reported mainly in biology and psychology (including sexology), but is also a subject area in anthropology, history (including social construction), and law, and there are other explanations related to sexual and cultural orientation.
Video Sexual orientation
The definition and differentiation of sexual identity and behavior
General
Sexual orientation has traditionally been defined as including heterosexuality, bisexuality, and homosexuality, while asexuality is considered the fourth category of sexual orientation by some researchers and has been defined as the absence of traditional sexual orientation. An asexual has little or no sexual attraction to people. This may be considered a lack of sexual orientation, and there is a significant debate as to whether it is sexual orientation or not.
Most definitions of sexual orientation include psychological components, such as the direction of individual erotic desires, or behavioral components, which focus on the sex of an individual sexual partner. Some people prefer to just follow a person's definition or identity. A scientific and professional understanding is that "the core attractions that form the basis for adult sexual orientation usually occur between middle and early adolescence." Sexual orientation differs from sexual identity in that it includes relationships with others, while sexual identity is a self-concept.
The American Psychological Association states that "[s] exual orientation refers to the perpetual pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions for men, women, or both sexes" and that "[t] various behaviors and appeals have been described in various cultures and countries around the world Many cultures use identity labels to describe people who express this attraction. In the United States, the most frequent labels are lesbians, gay men and bisexuals (men or women are attracted to both sexes), but some may use different or no labels ". They also stated that sexual orientation "differs from other sex and gender components, including biological sex (anatomical, physiological and genetic characteristics associated with being male or female), gender identity (male or female psychological meaning) , and the role of social gender (cultural norms that define feminine and masculine behavior) ". According to psychologists, sexual orientation also refers to the choice of one's sexual partner, which may be homosexual, heterosexual, or bisexual.
Sexual identity and sexual behavior are closely related to sexual orientation, but they are distinguished, with sexual identities referring to individual conceptions of themselves, behaviors that refer to actual sexual acts perpetrated by individuals, and orientations that refer to "fantasy, attachment and longing. "Individuals may or may not express their sexual orientation in their behavior. People who have non-heterosexual sexual orientations that are not in tune with their sexual identity are sometimes referred to as 'closed'. This term may, however, reflect certain cultural contexts and certain stages of transition in a society that gradually deals with integrating sexual minorities. In studies dealing with sexual orientation, when dealing with the extent to which sexual attraction, person's behavior and identity fit, scientists typically use the terms concordance or unbalance. Women who are attracted to other women, but call themselves heterosexual and have only sexual relationships with men, can be said to experience an imbalance between their sexual orientation (homosexual or lesbian) and their sexual identity and behavior (heterosexual).
Sexual identity can also be used to describe a person's perception of sex himself, rather than sexual orientation. The terms sexual preferences have meanings similar to sexual orientation , and two terms are often used interchangeably, but sexual preferences suggest voluntary levels of choice. This term has been registered by the American Psychological Association Committee on Gay and Lesbian Concerns as words that promote "heterosexual bias". Androphilia, gynephilia, and other terms Androphilia.2C_gynephilia_and_other_terms "> Androphilia,
Androphilia and gynephilia (or gynecophilia) are terms used in behavioral sciences to describe sexual attraction, as an alternative to homosexual and heterosexual conceptualizations. They are used to identify objects of attraction without linking sex work or gender identity with the subject. Related terms such as pansexual and polysexual do not make such assignments on the subject. People may also use terms like queer , pansensual, polyfidelitous, ambisexual, or personal identities such as >> byke or biphilic .
Same gender loving (SGL) is considered more than a different term for gay; this introduces the concept of love into the discussion. SGL also recognizes the relationship between people such as identity; for example, third-gender individuals who may be oriented to one another, and expand the discussion of sexuality outside of the genuine male/female duality. The complexity of the transgender orientation is also more fully understood in this perspective.
Using androphilia and gynephilia can avoid confusion and abuse when describing people in non-western cultures, as well as describing intersex and transgender people. Psychiatrist Anil Aggrawal explains that androphilia, along with gynephilia, "is needed to overcome the great difficulties in characterizing the sexual orientation of trans men and trans females.For example, it is difficult to decide whether an erotic man interested in men is a heterosexual or homosexual male, or trans females who are eroticly attracted to women are heterosexual or lesbian women.Each attempt to classify them may not only cause confusion but lead to abuses among affected subjects.In such cases, when defining sexual attraction, it is best to focus on the object of their attraction rather than on the sex or gender of the subject. "Sexologist Milton Diamond writes," Heterosexual, homosexual, and bisexual terms are better used as an adjective, not a noun, and better applied to behavior, not humans. User n is very advantageous when discussing individual partners transsexual or intersex. It's newer. The term also does not carry the social burden of the former. "
Some researchers advocate the use of terminology to avoid the bias inherent in Western conceptualization of human sexuality. Writing about the demography of faafafafine Samoa, sociologist Johanna Schmidt writes that in cultures where a third gender is recognized, terms such as "transsexual homosexuals" are not aligned with cultural categories.
Some researchers, such as Bruce Bagemihl, have criticized the "heterosexual" and "homosexual" labels as confusing and degrading. Bagemihl writes, "... the point of reference for 'heterosexual' or 'homosexual' orientation in this nomenclature is solely individual genetic sex before reassignment (see eg Blanchard et al. 1987, Coleman and Bockting 1988, Blanchard 1989 ).This label thereby ignores the individual senses of individual personal identity preceding rather than biological sex, not vice versa. "Bagemihl went on to pick up the problem by means of this terminology making it easy to claim transsexuals that truly homosexual men are seeking to escape from stigma.
Gender, transgender, cisgender, and suitability
The earliest writers on sexual orientation usually understand it intrinsically related to the subject's own sex. For example, there is the assumption that a typical woman who is attracted to people with a female body will have masculine attributes, and vice versa. This understanding is shared by most important theorists of sexual orientation from the mid-19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, such as Karl Heinrich Ulrichs, Richard von Krafft-Ebing, Magnus Hirschfeld, Havelock Ellis, Carl Jung, and Sigmund Freud, as well as many homosexual gender-type. However, the understanding of homosexuality as a sexual inversion was debated at the time, and, until the second half of the twentieth century, gender identity was increasingly seen as a phenomenon different from sexual orientation. Transgender and cisgender people may be attracted to men, women, or both, although the prevalence of different sexual orientations differs greatly in these two populations. Individuals homosexual, heterosexual or bisexual may be masculine, feminine, or double-sexed, and in addition, many members and supporters of lesbian and gay communities now see "gender-appropriate heterosexuals" and "unlawful homosexuals" as negative stereotypes.. However, a study by J. Michael Bailey and Kenneth Zucker found the majority of gay and lesbian men who sampled reported various levels of gender incompatibility during their childhood.
Today's transgender people identify with sexual orientations that match their gender; meaning that trans females who are only interested in women often identify themselves as lesbians. A trance man who is only interested in women will be a straight man.
Sexual orientation sees greater complexity when non-binary understandings of both sexes (male, female, or intersex) and gender (male, female, transgender, third sex, etc.) Sociologist Paula Rodriguez Rust (2000) for a more multifaceted definition of sexual orientation:
... Most alternative models of sexuality... determine sexual orientation in terms of biological sex or gender dichotomies... Most theorists will not remove references to gender or gender, but instead advocate incorporating more complex nonbinary concepts of gender or gender, a more complex relationship between sex, sex, and sexuality, and/or additional inaccessible dimensions into a model of sexuality.
Relationships beyond orientation
Gay and lesbian people can have sexual relations with the opposite sex for various reasons, including a desire for perceived traditional families and concerns of discrimination and religious exclusion. While some LGBT people hide their respective orientations from their partners, others develop a positive gay and lesbian identity while maintaining a successful heterosexual marriage. Getting out of the closet for yourself, couples of the opposite sex, and children can present challenges that gay and lesbian people do not face with people of the opposite sex or have no children.
Fluidity
General aspects
Often, sexual orientation and sexual orientation identity are not distinguishable, which may influence the accurate assessment of sexual identity and whether sexual orientation may change; the identity of sexual orientation may change throughout a person's life, and may or may not be in harmony with biological sex, sexual behavior or actual sexual orientation. While the Center for Addiction and Mental Health and the American Psychiatric Association state that sexual orientation is innate, continuous or constant throughout their lives for some, but fluid or change over time for others, the American Psychological Association distinguishes between sexual orientation (innate attraction) and identity of sexual orientation (which can change at any time in a person's life).
Some research indicates that "[f] or some [people] focus of sexual interest will shift at various points through the life span..." "There... [is, in 1995,] basically no research on longitudinal stability of sexual orientation during the adult life... It's... still an unanswered question whether... [the] measure [the complex component of sexual orientation distinguished from other aspects of sexual identity at one point of time] will predict behavior or future orientation ahead... Of course, that's... not a good predictor of past behavior and identity, given the general developmental process for most gay and lesbian men (ie, rejection of homosexual interests and heterosexual experiments before exit). "Several studies reported that "[some] lesbian women, and some heterosexual women also, regard choice as an important element in their sexual orientation."
Born bisexual, then monosexualization
Innate Bisexuality is an idea introduced by Sigmund Freud. According to this theory, all human beings are born bisexual in a very broad sense, combining common aspects of both sexes. In Freud's view, this is true anatomically and therefore psychologically, with sexual attraction in both sexes being a part of this psychological bisexuality. Freud believed that in the course of sexual development the masculine side would normally be dominant in men and the feminine side in women, but that as adults everyone still has a desire that comes from both masculine and feminine sides of their nature. Freud does not claim that everyone is bisexual in the sense of feeling the same level of sexual attraction of both sexes.
Maps Sexual orientation
Cause
The exact cause for the development of a particular sexual orientation has not been established. To date, much research has been done to determine the effects of genetics, hormonal action, developmental dynamics, social and cultural influences - which has led many to think that biological and environmental factors play a complex role in shaping them. It was once thought that homosexuality was the result of false psychological development, resulting from childhood experiences and problematic relationships, including childhood sexual abuse. It has been found that this is based on prejudice and misinformation.
Biology
Research has identified several biological factors that may be related to the development of sexual orientation, including genes, prenatal hormones, and brain structures. No single control cause has been identified, and research continues in this area.
Although researchers generally believe that sexual orientation is not determined by a single factor but by a combination of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences, with biological factors involving complex interactions of genetic factors and early uterine environments, they support a biological model for the cause.. They believe that sexual orientation is not an option, and some of them believe it was established at the moment of conception. That is, individuals do not choose to be homosexual, heterosexual, bisexual, or asexual. Current scientific investigations usually seek biological explanations for the adoption of specific sexual orientations. Scientific studies have found a number of statistical biological differences between gay and heterosexual people, which may be caused by the same cause as the sexual orientation itself.
Genetic factors
Genes may be related to the development of sexual orientation. A twin study from 2001 appears to exclude genes as a major factor, while twin studies from 2010 found that homosexuality is explained by both genes and environmental factors. However, the experimental design of available twin studies has made their interpretation difficult.
In 2012, a broad and comprehensive genome-wide genetic relationship research on male sexual orientation was undertaken by independent research groups. Significant associations with homosexuality were found with genes on the Xq28 chromosome and chromosome 8 in the pericentromeric region. The authors conclude that "our findings, taken in context with previous work, show that genetic variation in each of these areas contributes to the development of important psychological features of male sexual orientation." This is the largest study of the genetic basis of homosexuality to date and published online in November 2014.
Hormones
The hormonal theory of sexuality states that just as certain hormone exposure plays a role in fetal sex differentiation, hormonal exposure also affects sexual orientation that occurs later in adults. Fetal hormone can be seen as a major influence on adult sexual orientation or as a co-factor that interacts with genes or environmental and social conditions.
For humans, the norm is that women have two X sex chromosomes, while men have one X and one Y. The standard developmental pathway for a human fetus is female, the Y chromosome is what induces the changes needed to move on to the male development path.. This differentiation process is driven by androgen hormones, especially testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Newly formed fetal testes in the fetus are responsible for androgen secretion, which will work together to encourage the fetus's growing sexual differentiation, including the brain. This results in sexual differences between men and women. This fact has led some scientists to test in various ways the results of modifying androgen exposure levels in mammals during the fetus and early life.
Birth order
Recent studies have found an increase in the likelihood of homosexuality in men whose mothers formerly carried the term of many boys. This effect is canceled if the man is left-handed.
Known as the effects of labor delivery (FBO), this theory has been supported by strong evidence of its prenatal origin, although no evidence has so far linked it to the appropriate prenatal mechanism. However, studies show that this may be immunologic, caused by a maternal immune reaction to substances that are important for the development of a male fetus during pregnancy, which becomes more likely after every male pregnancy. As a result of this immune effect, changes in prenatal development in later-born men have been considered to occur. This process, known as the mother's immunization hypothesis (MIH), will begin when cells of the male fetus enter the mother's circulation during pregnancy or during childbirth. This Y-bound protein is not recognized in the maternal immune system because it is female, causing it to develop antibodies that will cross the placental barrier into the fetal compartment. From here, the anti-male body will then cross the blood-brain barrier of the developing fetal brain, altering the dimorphic brain structure of sex relative to sexual orientation, causing exposed children to be more attracted to men over women.
Environmental factors
There is no substantive evidence to support the suggestion that early childhood experiences, parenting, sexual harassment, or other adverse life events affect sexual orientation. However, the study found that the expression aspect of sexuality has a basic experience and that parental attitudes toward a particular sexual orientation can affect how children of parents experiment with behaviors associated with specific sexual orientations.
Influence: professional organization statement
The American Academy of Pediatrics pada tahun 2004 menyatakan:
Mechanisms for the development of specific sexual orientations remain unclear, but the current literature and most experts in the field state that one's sexual orientation is not an option; ie, individuals do not choose to be homosexual or heterosexual. Various theories of influence on sexual orientation have been proposed. Sexual orientation may not be determined by one factor but by a combination of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences. In recent decades, biological-based theories have been favored by experts. While there is still controversy and uncertainty about the origins of various human sexual orientations, there is no scientific evidence that abnormal parenting, sexual harassment, or other adverse life events affect sexual orientation. The current knowledge shows that sexual orientation is usually formed in early childhood.
American Psychological Association, American Psychiatric Association, dan National Association of Social Workers pada 2006 menyatakan:
At present, there is no scientific consensus about specific factors that cause a person to be heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual - including the possible biological, psychological, or social effects of a parent's sexual orientation. However, existing evidence suggests that most lesbian and gay adults are raised by heterosexual parents and most children raised by lesbian and gay parents eventually grow into heterosexuals.
The Royal College of Psychiatrists pada tahun 2007 menyatakan:
Despite almost a century of psychoanalytic and psychological speculation, there is no substantive evidence to support the suggestion that the nature of parenting or early childhood experience plays any role in the formation of a person's basic heterosexual or homosexual orientation. It seems that sexual orientation is biological, determined by the interaction of complex genetic factors and the environment of the early uterus. Sexual orientation is therefore not an option, although sexual behavior is obvious.
The American Psychiatric Association menyatakan:
No one knows what causes heterosexuality, homosexuality, or bisexuality. Homosexuality was once regarded as the result of a troubled family dynamics or an erroneous psychological development. These assumptions are now understood based on misinformation and prejudice.
Sebuah laporan resmi tertanggal 26 September 2007, dan disajikan atas nama American Psychological Association, California Psychological Association, American Psychiatric Association, National Association of Social Workers, dan National Association of Social Workers, California Chapter, menyatakan:
Although many studies have examined the possibility of genetic, hormonal, developmental, social, and cultural influences on sexual orientation, no findings emerge that allow scientists to conclude that sexual orientation - heterosexuality, homosexuality, or bisexuality - is determined by a particular factor or factor.. The evaluation of amici is that, although some of these studies may be promising in facilitating a greater understanding of the development of sexual orientation, it does not allow conclusions based on sound science today as in the causes or causes of sexual orientation, either homosexual, bisexual, or heterosexual.
Attempts to change sexual orientation
Efforts to change sexual orientation are methods that aim to change same-sex sexual orientation. They may include behavioral techniques, cognitive behavioral therapy, reparative therapy, psychoanalytic techniques, medical approaches, and religious and spiritual approaches.
There is no major mental health professional organization that sanctions efforts to change sexual orientation and almost all have adopted a policy statement that warns the profession and the community about treatment intended to alter sexual orientation. These include the American Psychiatric Association, the American Psychological Association, the American Counseling Association, the National Association of Social Workers in the US, the Royal College of Psychiatrists, and the Australian Psychological Society.
In 2009, the American Psychological Association's Task Force on the Right Therapeutic Response for Sexual Orientation conducted a systematic review of peer-reviewed journal literature on sexual orientation change (SOCE) and concluded:
Attempts to change sexual orientation are unlikely to succeed and involve some risk of harm, contrary to the claims of practitioners and SOCE supporters. Although clinical research and literature suggests that same sexual and romantic sexual attraction, feelings and sexual behavior are normal and positive variations of human sexuality, regardless of the identity of sexual orientation, the task force concludes that populations experiencing SOCE tend to have strong conservative religious views that guide to try to change their sexual orientation. Thus, the proper application of affirmative therapeutic interventions for those seeking SOCE involves the acceptance of client therapists, support, and understanding and active client coping, social support, and exploration and identity development, without imposing a specific orientation of sexual orientation..
In 2012, the Pan American Health Organization released a statement warning against services intended to "cure" people with non-heterosexual sexual orientation because they have no medical justification and are a serious threat. for the health and well-being of affected persons, and notes that global scientific and professional consensus is that homosexuality is a normal and natural variation of human sexuality and can not be regarded as a pathological condition. The Pan American Health Organization further asks governments, academic institutions, professional associations and the media to expose these practices and to promote respect for diversity. The World Health Organization affiliation further notes that minors of gay are sometimes forced to attend this unconscious "therapy", deprived of their liberty and sometimes kept in isolation for several months, and that these findings are reported by several United Nations agencies -Nation. In addition, the Pan American Health Organization recommends that such malpractice be denounced and subject to sanctions and penalties under national law, as they constitute a violation of ethical principles of health care and violation of human rights protected by international and regional treaties.
National Association for Research & amp; Homosexual Therapy (NARTH), which describes itself as a "professional scientific organization that offers hope for those struggling with unwanted homosexuality," disagrees with the position of the main mental health community on conversion therapy, both on its effectiveness and by depicting sexual orientation. not as a quality of binary change, or as a disease, but as a series of intensity of sexual attraction and emotional influence. The American Psychological Association and the Royal College of Psychiatrists expressed concern that the position held by NARTH is not supported by science and creates an environment in which prejudice and discrimination can flourish.
Ratings and measurements
Varying strong social definitions and norms about sexuality can make sexual orientation difficult to measure.
Initial classification scheme
One of the earliest sexual orientation classification schemes was proposed in the 1860s by Karl Heinrich Ulrichs in a series of pamphlets he published personally. The classification scheme, which is meant only to describe men, separates them into three basic categories: dionation, urnings and uranodionings . A urning can be further categorized by level of dignity. These categories are directly in line with the currently used sexual orientation categories: heterosexual , homosexuality , and bisexuals . In a series of pamphlets, Ulrichs outlines a set of questions to determine if a man is urning . The definition of each category of the Ulrichs classification scheme is as follows:
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- Dioning - Compared to the modern term "heterosexual"
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- Urning - Compared to the modern term "homosexual"
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- Mannling - A strong man
- Weibling - A census urning
- Zwischen - Somewhat male and somewhat urning
- Virilised - Sexually explicit behavior like dioning
- Mannling - A strong man
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- Urano-Dioning - Compared to the modern term "bisexual"
At least the end of the nineteenth century in Europe, there is speculation that the range of human sexual response is more like a continuum than two or three discrete categories. Sexist Berlin Magnus Hirschfeld published a scheme in 1896 that measures the power of individual sexual desire on two independent 10-point scale, A (homosexual) and B (heterosexual). The heterosexual individual may be A0, B5; homosexual individuals can be A5, B0; asexual will be A0, B0; and someone with a strong interest for both sexes will be A9, B9.
Kinsey Scale
The Kinsey scale, also called the Homosexual-Heterosexual Rating Scale, was first published in Sexual Behavior in Human Humans (1948) by Alfred Kinsey, Wardell Pomeroy, and Clyde Martin and also featured in Sexual Behavior on Women of Man (1953). This scale was developed against the assumption at the time that heterosexual or homosexual people and that these two types represent the antithesis in the sexual world. Recognizing that most of the population is not completely heterosexual or homosexual and people can experience heterosexual and homosexual behavior and psychic responses, Kinsey et al., States:
Males do not represent two discrete, heterosexual and homosexual populations. The world does not have to be divided into sheep and goats. Not all black objects or all white objects... The living world is a continuum in every aspect. The sooner we learn this about human sexual behavior, the sooner we will reach a good understanding of the reality of sex.
The Kinsey scale provides a classification of sexual orientation based on the relative number of heterosexual and homosexual experiences or psychic responses in a person's history at any given time. The classification scheme works in such a way that individuals in the same category show the same balance between heterosexual and homosexual elements in their history. The position on the scale is based on the heterosexual relationship with homosexuality in a person's history, rather than the actual number of real experiences or psychic responses. An individual can be assigned a position on a scale according to the definition of the following scale points:
The Kinsey scale has been praised for rejecting the classification of the dichotomy of sexual orientation and allowing for a new perspective on human sexuality. However, the scale is criticized because it is still not really a continuum. Although there are seven categories that are able to provide more accurate sexual orientation descriptions than dichotomous scales, it is still difficult to determine which individual categories should be assigned. In a large study comparing sexual response in homosexual men and women, Masters and Johnson discussed the difficulty of assigning Kinsey ratings to participants. In particular, they find it difficult to determine the relative amount of heterosexual and homosexual experiences and responses in a person's history when using the scale. They reported finding it difficult to rank 2-4 for individuals with a large number of heterosexual and homosexual experiences. When there is a large number of heterosexual and homosexual experiences in a person's history, it becomes difficult for the individual to be fully objective in assessing the relative amounts of each.
Weinrich et al. (1993) and Weinberg et al. (1994) criticized the scale to line up different individuals based on different dimensions of sexuality into the same category. When applying the scale, Kinsey considers two dimensions of sexual orientation: sexual experience and open psychosexual reactions. Valuable information is lost by breaking two values ​​into one final score. A person who has just the same sex reaction is different from someone with relatively few reactions but many same sex experiences. It would be very easy for Kinsey to measure two dimensions separately and report the score independently to avoid loss of information. In addition, there are more than two dimensions of sexuality to be considered. Beyond behavior and reactions, one can also assess attractiveness, identification, lifestyle, etc. This is overcome by Klein Orientation Sexual Grids.
The third concern with the Kinsey scale is that measuring heterosexuality and homosexuality are not exactly on the same scale, making one other tradeoff. A 1970 study of masculinity and femininity found that the concept of masculinity and femininity was more accurately measured as an independent concept on a separate scale than as a whole, with each tip representing the opposite extremes. When compared on the same scale, they act as sacrifices like that, so being more feminine a person should be less masculine and vice versa. However, if they are considered as separate dimensions one can simultaneously be very masculine and very feminine. Similarly, considering heterosexuality and homosexuality on a separate scale will allow a person to be very heterosexual and very homosexual or not too much. When they are independently measured, heterosexual and homosexual levels can be independently determined, rather than a heterosexual and homosexual balance as determined using the Kinsey Scale.
Klein Orientation Sexual Network
In response to criticism of the Kinsey scale measuring only two dimensions of sexual orientation, Fritz Klein developed Klein's sexual orientation network (KSOG), a multidimensional scale to describe sexual orientation. Introduced in Klein Bisexual Options (1978), KSOG uses a 7-point scale to assess seven different dimensions of sexuality at three different points in the individual's life: the past (from early adolescence to a year ago) , present (in the last 12 months), and ideal (what would you choose if it really is your choice).
Assessment of Sexual Orientation Selling
The Sell Assessment of Sexual Orientation (SASO) was developed to address major problems with the Kinsey Scale and the Klein Sexual Orientation Grid and thus, measure the sexual orientation of a continuum, consider the various dimensions of sexual orientation, and assume homosexuality and heterosexuality separately. Rather than providing a final solution to the question of how best to measure sexual orientation, SASO is intended to elicit discussion and debate on the measurement of sexual orientation.
SASO consists of 12 questions. Six of these questions assessed sexual attraction, four assessed sexual behavior, and two assessed a sexual orientation orientation. For each question on a scale that measures homosexuality there are related questions that measure the heterosexuality that gives six pairs of suitable questions. Overall, six pairs of questions and responses provide a profile of individual sexual orientation. However, the results can be further simplified into four summaries that look specifically at appropriate responses to either homosexuality, heterosexuality, bisexuality or asexuality.
Of all the questions on the scale, Sell considers those who value sexual attraction to be of the utmost importance because sexual attraction is a better reflection of the concept of sexual orientation which he defines as "the level of sexual attraction toward other members, equal, whether gender or not" in addition to sexual identity or sexual behavior. Identity and behavior are measured as additional information because they are closely related to sexual attraction and sexual orientation. The main criticism of SASO has not been set, but the concern is that reliability and validity are largely untested.
Difficulty with rating
Studies focusing on sexual orientation use the assessment scale to identify who belongs to the sexual population group. It is estimated that these scales will be able to identify and categorize people based on their sexual orientation. However, it is difficult to determine a person's sexual orientation through a rating scale, due to ambiguity regarding the definition of sexual orientation. Generally, there are three components of sexual orientation used in the assessment. Their definitions and examples of how they can be assessed are as follows:
Although sexual attraction, behavior, and identity are all components of sexual orientation, if one is defined by any of these dimensions is congruent to that defined by another dimension it is not a problem used in judging orientation, but this is not the case. There is "a small coherent relationship between the number and mix of homosexual and heterosexual behavior in a person's biography and the person's choice to refer to himself as bisexual, homosexual, or heterosexual." Individuals usually experience a variety of attractions and behaviors that may reflect curiosity, experimentation, social pressure and do not always indicate the underlying sexual orientation. For example, a woman may have fantasies or thoughts about sex with other women but never act on these thoughts and only have sex with the opposite sex. If sexual orientation is judged on the sexual attractiveness of a person then this individual will be considered homosexual, but his behavior indicates heterosexuality.
Since there is no study to show which of the three components is important in determining sexual orientation, they are used independently and give different conclusions about sexual orientation. Savin Williams (2006) addressed this issue and noted that by basing findings on sexual orientation on a single component, researchers may not actually capture the target population. For example, if homosexuals are defined by the same sex behavior, gay abandoned, heterosexual gamers who engage in similar sex behavior for other reasons than favored sexual favors are miscalculated, and those with the same sex attraction who have only the opposite sex relationship are not included. Due to the limited population that each component captures, research consumers should be cautious in generalizing these findings.
One of the uses for the scale that assess sexual orientation is determining what the prevalence of different sexual orientations in a population. Depending on the age of the subject, culture and sex, the prevalence rate of homosexuality varies depending on which component of sexual orientation is assessed: sexual attraction, sexual behavior, or sexual identity. Assessing sexual attraction will result in the greatest prevalence of homosexuality in a population where the proportion of individuals who show that they are attracted to the same sex is two to three times greater than the proportion who reported the same sex behavior or identified as gay, lesbian or bisexual. In addition, reports of same sex behavior usually outweigh gay, lesbian or bisexual identification. The following chart shows how widely the prevalence of homosexuality may vary depending on the age, location and component of the sexual orientation being assessed:
The variance in the prevalence rate is reflected in people's inconsistency responses to the various components of sexual orientation in a study and the instability of their responses over time. Laumann et al. (1994) found that among US adults 20% of those who would be considered homosexual in one orientation component were homosexuals in the other two dimensions and 70% responded in a manner consistent with homosexuality only in one of three dimensions. Furthermore, sexuality may be fluid; for example, the identity of a person's sexual orientation is not always stable or consistent over time but may change throughout life. Diamond (2003) found that more than 7 years 2/3 of women changed their sexual identity at least once, with many reports that the label was inadequate in capturing the diversity of their sexual or romantic feelings. Furthermore, women who release bisexual and lesbian identification do not release the same sex sexuality and recognize the possibility for the same sex attraction or behavior in the future. One woman stated "I am especially straight but I am one of those people who, if the right circumstances come, will change my point of view". Therefore, individuals who are classified as homosexual in one study may not be identified in the same way elsewhere depending on which component is assessed and when the assessment is made so it is difficult to determine who is homosexual and who is not and what the overall prevalence in the population might be.
Implications
Depending on which component of sexual orientation is assessed and referred to, different conclusions can be drawn about the prevalence of homosexuality that has real-world consequences. Knowing how many populations of homosexual individuals affects how this population can be seen or treated by public and government agencies. For example, if homosexual individuals constitute only 1% of the general population they are politically easier to ignore or than if they are known as constituencies that go beyond most ethnic and adult minorities. If the numbers are relatively small then it is difficult to argue for similar community-based programs and services, gay role model media inclusions, or Gay/Straight Alliances in schools. For this reason, in the 1970s Bruce Voeller, chairman of the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force perpetuated the common myth that the prevalence of homosexuality was 10% for the entire population with an average of 13% for men and 7% for women. Voeller generalizes these findings and uses them as part of the modern gay rights movement to convince politicians and the public that "we [gays and lesbians] are everywhere."
Proposed solution
In the paper "Who's Gay? Does It Matter?", Ritch Savin-Williams proposes two different approaches to assessing sexual orientation to well positioned and well-developed psychometrics and developed definitions that will allow research to reliably identify prevalence, causes, and consequences of homosexuality. He first pointed out that greater priority should be given to sexual arousal and interest in behavior and identity because it is less prone to self and other fraud, social conditions and variable meanings. To measure the attraction and passion he proposed that biological actions should be developed and used. There are many existing biological/physiological measures that can measure sexual orientation such as sexual arousal, brain scans, eye tracking, body odor preferences, and anatomical variations such as ratio of digit length and right or left hand. Second, Savin-Williams points out that researchers should abandon the general idea of ​​sexual orientation altogether and only assess the relevant components for the research question under investigation. As an example:
- To rate STD or HIV transmission, measure sexual behavior
- To rate an interpersonal attachment, measure sexual/romantic attractiveness
- To assess political ideology, measure sexual identity
How the rating
Commonly used means include surveys, interviews, cross-cultural studies, physical stimulation, measurement of sexual behavior, sexual fantasies, or erotic patterns of stimulation. The most common are self-reporting or self-labeling, which depends on an accurate respondent about themselves.
Sexual stimulation
Studying human sexual arousal has proven a useful way to understand how men and women differ as sex and in terms of sexual orientation. Clinical measurements may use photoplethysmography of the penis or vagina, in which genital enlargement with blood is measured in response to exposure to different erotic substances.
Some researchers who study sexual orientation argue that the concept may not apply equally to men and women. A study of the pattern of sexual arousal found that women, when looking at erotic films showing female sexual activity, men and women (oral sex or penetration), have a pattern of arousal that is not in accordance with sexual orientation they declare as well as men. That is, the sexual passion of heterosexual and lesbian women for erotic films does not differ significantly by the sex of the participants (male or female) or by the type of sexual activity (heterosexual or homosexual). In contrast, male sexual arousal patterns tend to be more in line with their stated orientation, with heterosexual men showing more penis excitement for female sexual activity and less passion for male- and male-male sexual stimulation , and homosexual and bisexual men are more aroused by films depicting male-male relationships and less aroused by other stimuli.
Another study of men and women's patterns of sexual arousal affirm that men and women have different patterns of passion, regardless of their sexual orientation. The study found that female genitals become aroused by human and nonhuman stimuli from films that show humans of both sex (heterosexual and homosexual) and from videos showing non-human primates (bonobos) having sex. Men do not show sexual arousal to non-human visual stimuli, their passionate patterns that align with their particular sexual interests (women for men and heterosexual men for homosexual men).
These studies show that men and women differ in terms of sexual arousal patterns and that this is also reflected in how their genitals react to sexual stimulation of both sexes or even non-human stimuli. Sexual orientation has many dimensions (attraction, behavior, identity), in which sexual arousal is the only measurable sexual attraction product currently with some degree of physical accuracy. Thus, the fact that women are raised by seeing non-human primates having sex does not mean that the sexual orientation of women belongs to this type of sexual attraction. Some researchers argue that women's sexual orientation is less dependent on their sexual arousal patterns than men and that other components of sexual orientation (such as emotional attachment) should be taken into account when describing a woman's sexual orientation. By contrast, male sexual orientation tends to be primarily focused on the physical components of attraction and, thus, their sexual feelings are more exclusively gender-oriented.
More recently, scientists have begun to focus on measuring changes in brain activity associated with sexual arousal, using brain scanning techniques. A study of how brains of heterosexual and homosexual men react to images of naked men and women have found that both hetero and homosexual men react positively to see the sex they love, using the same brain region. The only significant group difference between these orientations is found in the amygdala, a region of the brain known to be involved in regulating fear.
Although these findings have contributed to understanding how sexual arousal can differentiate between sex and sexual orientation, it is debatable whether these results reflect differences that are the result of social learning or genetic or biological factors. Further research is needed to clarify how many people's reactions to sexual stimulation of the sex they like are due to factors learned or innate.
Culture
Research shows that sexual orientation does not depend on other cultural and social influences, but the open identification of one's sexual orientation can be hindered by homophobic/heterosexual settings. Social systems such as religion, language and ethnic traditions can have a strong impact on the realization of sexual orientation. Cultural influences can complicate the process of measuring sexual orientation. The majority of empirical and clinical studies in LGBT populations are conducted with mostly white, middle-class, and highly educated samples, but there are many studies documenting other cultural groups, although these are often limited in gender diversity and sexual orientation. of the subject. The integration of sexual orientation with sociocultural identity may be a challenge for LGBT individuals. Individuals may or may not consider their sexual orientation to determine their sexual identity, as they may experience varying degrees of sexuality flexibility, or may simply identify more strongly with other aspects of their identity such as family roles. American culture places great emphasis on individual attributes, and views itself as unchangeable and constant. In contrast, East Asian culture strongly emphasizes one's social role in the social hierarchy, and sees itself as fluid and malleable. This different cultural perspective has many implications for self-cognition, including the perception of sexual orientation.
Language
Translation is a major obstacle when comparing different cultures. Many English terms are less equivalent in other languages, while the concepts and words of other languages ​​fail to be reflected in English. Translation and vocabulary barriers are not limited to English. Language can force individuals to identify with labels that may or may not accurately reflect their actual sexual orientation. Language can also be used to signal sexual orientation to others. The meaning of words that refer to the category of sexual orientation negotiated in the mass media in relation to social organization. New words can be used to describe new terms or better describe the complex interpretation of sexual orientation. Other words can take a new layer or meaning. For example, the Spanish heterosexual terms marido and mujer for "husband" and "wife", respectively, have recently been replaced in Spain by the gender-neutral term cÃÆ'³nyuges or consortes meaning "spouse".
Perception
One person may consider other people's sexual orientation knowledge based on perceived characteristics, such as appearance, outfit, tone of voice, and accompaniment by and behavior with others. Attempts to detect sexual orientation in social situations are known as gaydar; some studies have found that guesses based on facial photos have better performance than coincidences. The 2015 study shows that "gaydar" is an alternative label for using LGBT stereotypes to infer orientation, and that face shape is not an accurate indication of orientation.
The perceived sexual orientation can affect how a person is treated. For example, in the United States, the FBI reports that 15.6% of hate crimes reported to police in 2004 were "due to sexual orientation bias". Under the UK 2003 Employment Equal Option Rules, as described by the Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service, "employers or job applicants should not be treated unfavorably because of their sexual orientation, their sexual orientation or because they are related to a person from an orientation sexually specific ".
In European-American culture, sexual orientation is determined by the sex of someone who is romantically or sexually interested. European-American culture generally assumes heterosexuality, unless otherwise specified. Cultural norms, values, traditions and laws facilitate heterosexuality, including marriage and family construction. Efforts are underway to change this attitude, and laws are being passed to promote equality.
Some other cultures do not recognize homosexual/heterosexual/bisexual differences. It is common to distinguish one's sexuality according to their sexual role (active/passive, insertive). In this distinction, the passive role is usually associated with femininity or inferiority, while the active role is usually associated with masculinity or superiority. For example, an investigation of a small fishing village in Brazil revealed three categories of sex for men: men who have sex only with men (consistently in a passive role), men who have sex only with women, and men who have sex with women and men consistent in an active role). While men who consistently occupy a passive role are recognized as distinct groups by locals, men who have sex only with women, and men who have sex with women and men, are not distinguished. Little is known about women interested in same-sex, or sexual behavior among women in this culture.
Racism and ethnically relevant support
In the United States, non-Caucasian LGBT individuals may find themselves in a dual minority, where they are not fully accepted or understood by LGBT communities especially Caucasians, nor are they accepted by their own ethnic group. Many people experience racism in the dominant LGBT community where racial stereotypes merge with gender stereotypes, so the Asian-American LGBT is seen as more passive and feminine, while African-American LGBT is seen as more masculine and aggressive. There are a number of culturally supportive support networks for LGBT individuals active in the United States. For example, "ÃÆ'" -MÃÆ'Â'i "for Vietnamese American women.
Religion
Sexuality in the context of religion is often a controversial subject, especially sexual orientation. In the past, various sects have seen homosexuality from a negative point of view and have punishments for same-sex relationships. In modern times, an increasing number of religious and denominational religions accept homosexuality. It is possible to integrate sexual identity and religious identity, depending on the interpretation of religious texts.
Some religious organizations object to the concept of full sexual orientation. In the revised 2014 code of ethics of the American Christian Counselor Association, members are prohibited to "describe or reduce the identity and nature of human beings against sexual orientation or reference," even when the counselor must recognize the fundamental right of the client to self-determination.
Internet and media
The Internet has influenced sexual orientation in two ways: it is a common mode of discourse on the issue of sexual orientation and sexual identity, and therefore forms a popular conception; and that enables the achievement of anonymous sexual partners, and facilitates communication and connections between more people.
Demographics
The various aspects of sexual orientation and boundary boundary issues that have been described create a methodological challenge for the study of sexual orientation demographics. Determining the frequency of various sexual orientations in the real world population is difficult and controversial.
Most modern scientific surveys find that the majority of people report heterosexual orientation mostly. However, the relative percentage of people reporting homosexual orientation varies with different methodologies and selection criteria. Most of these statistical findings are in the range of 2.8 to 9% of men, and 1 to 5% of women for the United States - this figure can be as high as 12% for some major cities and as low as 1% for rural areas. area.
Estimates for the percentage of bisexual populations vary widely, at least in part because of the different definitions of bisexuality. Some studies only consider a person bisexual if they are almost as interested in both sexes, and others consider a person bisexual if they are at all interested in the same sex (because most people are heterosexual) or to the opposite sex (because most people are homosexual). A small percentage of people are not sexually attracted to anyone (asexuality). A study in 2004 put the prevalence of asexuality at 1%.
Kinsey data
In the often-quoted and often criticized Sexual Behavior in Human Humans (1948) and Sexual Behavior on Human Woman (1953), by Alfred C. Kinsey et al., People people are asked to rate themselves on a scale from fully heterosexual to fully homosexual. Kinsey reports that when individual behaviors and their identities are analyzed, most people appear to be at least somewhat bisexual - that is, most people have an interest in sex, although usually one gender is preferred. According to Kinsey, only a minority (5-10%) can be considered fully heterosexual or homosexual. Conversely, only a smaller minority can be considered completely bisexual (with interest in yan
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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