Porcelain ( ) is a ceramic material made with heating materials, generally including kaolin, in kilns up to temperatures between 1,200 and 1,400 ° C (2,200 and 2,600 Â ° F). The toughness, strength, and translucency of porcelain, relative to other pottery types, arises mainly from the vitrification and formation of mullite minerals in the body at these high temperatures.
Porcelain gradually developed in China and finally reached (depending on the definition used) at some point about 2,000 to 1,200 years ago, then slowly spread to other East Asian countries, and finally Europe and the rest of the world. The manufacturing process is more demanding than that for pottery and pottery, the other two types of pottery, and is usually regarded as the most prestigious type of pottery for its delicacy, strength, and white color. It combines both with glaze and paint, and can be modeled very well, allowing a wide range of decorative treatments in tablewares, boats and sculptures. It also has many uses in technology and industry.
The European name, porcelain in English, comes from the ancient Italian porcellana (cowrie shell) because of its resemblance to the surface of the shell. Porcelain is also referred to as china or fine porcelain in some English-speaking countries, as it was first seen in imports from China. The properties associated with porcelain include low permeability and elasticity; strength, hardness, toughness, whiteness, translucency and resonance are considerable; and high resistance to chemical attack and thermal shock.
Porcelain has been described as "fully vitrified, hard, impermeable (even before glass), white or artificially colored, translucent (unless the thickness is large enough), and resonant". However, the term "porcelain" has no universal definition and has been "not systematically applied to substances of different kinds which have only the same particular surface quality". Traditionally, East Asia has only classified pottery into low-fired goods (earthenware) and fired goods (often translated as porcelain), without the European concept of stoneware, being fired high but generally not white or translucent. Terms such as "proto-porcelain", "porcellaneous" or "near-porcelain" can be used in cases where the ceramic body is close to white and translucent. Most modern porcelain is made of variant bone china.
Video Porcelain
Materials
Kaolin is the main ingredient of porcelain made, although clay minerals may only represent a fraction of the overall. The paste word is an old term for non-firefox and non-activated material. More common terminology for undefined material is "body"; For example, when purchasing a substance, a potter may order a number of body porcelains from the vendor.
The porcelain composition varies greatly, but kaolinite minerals from clay are often the raw material. Other raw materials can include feldspar, ball clay, glass, bone ash, steatite, quartz, petuntse and alabaster.
The clay used is often described as long or short, depending on its plasticity. The long clay is cohesive (sticky) and has a high plasticity; short clay is less cohesive and has lower plasticity. In soil mechanics, plasticity is determined by measuring the increase in water content required to convert clay from solid states adjacent to plastics, to plastic states adjacent to liquids, although the term is also used less formally to describe the ease with which clays can be worked. The clay used for porcelain is generally lower than plasticity and shorter than many other pottery clays. They are wet very quickly, meaning small changes in the water content can produce major changes in workability. Thus, the range of water content in which this clay can work is very narrow and consequently must be carefully controlled.
Method
The following sections provide background information on the methods used to shape, decorate, finish, glaze, and fire ceramic items.
Formation
Glass
Unlike their lower-fired counterparts, porcelain items do not need glass to make them water-resistant and for the most part glass for decorative purposes and to make them resistant to dirt and staining. Many types of glazes, such as iron-containing glazes used in Longquan celadon, are specially designed for their striking effect on porcelain. Porcelain bisque not glazed.
Decorations
Porcelain items can be decorated under glaze using pigments that include cobalt and copper or above glazes using colored enamel. Like many items before, modern porcelain is often fired with biscuits of about 1,000 Â ° C (1,830 Â ° F), coated glaze and then sent for second glaze burning at temperatures around 1,300 Â ° C (2,370 Â ° F) or higher. The other initial method is "once-fired", in which the glaze is applied to the unworked body and both are shot together in one operation.
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In this process, "green" (not fired) ceramic items are heated to high temperatures in kilns to regulate their shape permanently. Porcelain fired at higher temperatures than pottery so the body can enlarge and become non-porous.
Maps Porcelain
History
Chinese porcelain
Porcelain comes from China, and it took a long time to reach the modern material. There is no exact date to separate the proto-porcelain production from porcelain. Although some proto-porcelain items originated from the Shang dynasty (1600-1046 BC), during the Eastern Han dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) period, glossy ceramic items had developed into porcelain, which China defined as fuel high ware. At the end of the Sui Dynasty (581-618 AD) and early Tang dynasty (618-907 AD) additional Western requirements of whiteness and opacity have been achieved, in such types as Ding ware. The goods have been exported to the Islamic world, where they are very valuable.
Finally, the porcelain and craftsmanship needed to make it begin to spread to other areas of East Asia. During the Song dynasty (960-1279 AD), art and production had reached new heights. Porcelain making becomes very organized, and kiln sites dug from this period can shoot as many as 25,000 items. While Xing ware is regarded as one of the largest Tang Dynasty porcelain, Ding ware became the main porcelain of Song dynasty.
At the time of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644 AD), porcelain items were being exported to Europe. Some of the most famous Chinese porcelain art styles arrived in Europe during this era, such as the coveted "blue-and-white" goods. The Ming Dynasty controlled many porcelain trades, which expanded into Asia, Africa and Europe through the Silk Road. In 1517, Portuguese traders began trading directly by sea with the Ming dynasty, and in 1598, Dutch merchants followed suit.
Some porcelain is more appreciated than others in imperial China. The most appreciated types can be identified by their association with the court, either as tribute offerings, or as a product of a kiln under imperial control. Some of the most famous examples are Jingdezhen porcelain. During the Ming dynasty, Jingdezhen porcelain became a source of imperial pride. The Emperor Yongle built a porcelain-faced white brick pagoda in Nanjing, and a very fine white porcelain type typical of his government. Jingdezhen porcelain fame peaked during the Qing dynasty.
Japanese porcelain
Although the Japanese elite were Chinese porcelain importers from the beginning, they could not make their own until the arrival of Korean craftsmen who were held captive during the Japanese invasion of Korea (1592-1598). They carried a refinable kiln, and one of them saw the source of porcelain clay near Arita, and soon several kilns had begun in the area. At first their merchandise was similar to cheaper and rustic Chinese porcelain with a frosted blue decoration already sold in Japan; this style continues for the less expensive daily items until the 20th century.
Exports to Europe began around 1660, through the Dutch East Indies Company, the only Europeans permitting trade presence. Chinese exports have been completely disrupted by the civil war when the Ming dynasty collapsed, and Japanese exports increased rapidly to fill that void. At first they used European forms and mostly Chinese decorations, as did the Chinese, but gradually the original Japanese style developed. Nabeshima ware is produced in a kiln owned by a feudal noble family, and is decorated in Japanese tradition, mostly related to textile design. It was originally not exported, but used for gifts to other aristocratic families. Imari ware and Kakiemon are a broad term for the export porcelain style with "enameled" overglaze decorations beginning in the early period, both with many sub-types.
Various styles and manufacturing centers were used in the early 19th century, and when Japan opened trade in the second half, exports grew enormously and quality generally declined. Many traditional porcelain continue to imitate old production methods and styles, and there are some modern industrial manufacturers.
European porcelain
This exported Chinese porcelain is highly appreciated in Europe which in Chinese is a synonym commonly used for the Italian term
. porcelain . The first mention of porcelain in Europe was at Il Milione by Marco Polo at XII sec. In addition to copying Chinese porcelain in faience, the soft-grit Medici porcelain in 16th-century Florence was the first real European effort to reproduce it, with little success.
In the early 16th century, Portuguese traders returned home with kaolin samples, which they found in China to be important in the production of porcelain articles. However, Chinese techniques and compositions used to produce porcelain are not yet fully understood. Countless experiments to produce porcelain have unpredictable results and meet with failure. In the state of Saxony, Germany, the search ended in 1708 when Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus produced a hard, white, translucent porcelain specimen with a combination of ingredients, including kaolin and alabaster, mined from the Saxon mine at Colditz. It is a heavily guarded trade secret of the Saxon company.
In 1712, many Chinese porcelain manufacturing secrets were revealed throughout Europe by the French Jesuit father Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles and soon published in Lettres ÃÆ' Â © difiantes et curieuses de Chine par des missionnaires jÃÆ' Â © suites . The secrets, which have been read and witnessed in China, are now known and began to be used in Europe.
Meissen
Von Tschirnhaus and Johann Friedrich BÃÆ'¶ttger were hired by Augustus II the Strong and worked in Dresden and Meissen in the state of Saxony, Germany. Tschirnhaus had extensive knowledge of science and had engaged in a European quest for perfect porcelain manufacture when, in 1705, BÃÆ'¶ttger was appointed to assist him in this task. BÃÆ'¶ttger was originally trained as a pharmacist; after he turned to alchemical research, he claimed to have known the secret of turning waste into gold, which attracted the attention of Augustus. Imprisoned by Augustus as an incentive to accelerate his research, BÃÆ'¶ttger was obliged to work with other alchemists in a futile search for transmutation and ultimately assigned to assist Tschirnhaus. One of the first results of the collaboration between the two is the development of a red pot that is similar to Yixing.
A workshop note notes that the first specimens of hard, white and fiery European porcelain were produced in 1708. At the time, the study was still overseen by Tschirnhaus; However, he died in October of that year. It was left to BÃÆ'¶ttger to report to Augustus in March 1709 so he could make porcelain. For this reason, credit for the invention of European porcelain has traditionally been considered to be derived from it rather than Tschirnhaus.
The Meissen plant was founded in 1710 after the development of kilns and glazes suitable for use with BÃÆ'¶ttger porcelain, which requires combustion at temperatures up to 1,400 ° C (2.552 ° F) to achieve light. Meissen porcelain is burn-out , or fired green . It is famous for its great resistance to thermal shock; visitors to the plant at BÃÆ'¶ttger's time reported having seen a hot-white pitcher removed from the kiln and fell into cold water without damage. Although these kafirs have been widely replicated in modern times.
Porcelain soft pasta
Pasta produced by combining clay and glass powder (frit) is called Frittenporzellan in Germany and frita pÃÆ' Â ¢ te tendre and in the UK as "soft-paste". They seem to have been given this name because they do not easily maintain their shape in wet conditions, or because they tend to degenerate in a furnace under high temperatures, or because the body and glaze can be easily scratched.
Experiments in Rouen produced the earliest soft paste in France, but the first important French soft-paste chips were made at the Saint-Cloud factory before 1702. Soft pasta factories were established with the Chantilly factory in 1730 and at Mennecy in 1750. Factory Vincennes porcelain was founded in 1740, moved to a larger place in SÃÆ'¨vres in 1756. Vincennes soft-paste is whiter and more free of imperfection than other French rivals, which put Vincennes/SÃÆ'¨vres porcelain in the leading position in France and throughout Europe in the second half of the 18th century.
The first soft-paste in the UK was shown by Thomas Briand to the Royal Society in 1742 and is believed to be based on the formula of Saint-Cloud. In 1749, Thomas Frye took patents on porcelain-containing porcelain. This is the first bone china, which was then perfected by Josiah Spode.
In the twenty-five years after the Briand demonstration, a number of factories were set up in England to make soft-pasta table items and figures:
- Chelsea (1743)
- Bow (1745)
- St James (1748)
- Bristol porcelain (1748)
- Longton Hall (1750)
- Royal Crown Derby (1750 or 1757)
- Royal Worcester (1751)
- Lowestoft china (1757)
- Wedgwood (1759)
- Spode (1767)
More developments
William Cookworthy invented kaolin deposits in Cornwall, contributing greatly to the development of porcelain and other whiteware ceramics in the UK. The Cookworthy factory in Plymouth, founded in 1768, used kaolin and porcelain stones to create porcelain with a body composition similar to Chinese porcelain in the early 18th century.
Type
Porcelain can be divided into three main categories: hard-paste, soft-paste and bone china. The categories that belong to the object depend on the composition of the paste used to make porcelain objects and firing conditions.
Hard paste
Hard-paste porcelain comes from East Asia, especially China, and some of the best quality porcelain items come from this category. The earliest European porcelain was produced at the Meissen factory in the early 18th century; they are formed from a paste composed of kaolin and alabaster and fired at temperatures up to 1,400 ° C (2.552 ° F) in a wood-burning furnace, producing porcelain with hardness, translucency, and great strength. Then, Meissen's hard paste composition was altered and the alabaster was replaced by feldspar and quartz, allowing the pieces to be fired at lower temperatures. Kaolinite, feldspar and quartz (or other silica form) continue to form the base material for most of Europe's hard-paste porcelain porcelain.
Soft paste
Small soft-coated axes are derived from early attempts by European craftsmen to mimic Chinese porcelain by using clay and frit mixtures. Soapstone and lime are known to have been incorporated in this composition. These items have not actual porcelain items because they are not hard or vitrified by firing kaolin clay at high temperatures. Because these initial formulations undergo high pyroplastic deformation, or degenerate in kilns at high temperatures, they are uneconomical to produce and of poor quality. The formulations are then developed based on kaolin with quartz, feldspars, nepheline syenite or other feldspathic rocks. It is technically superior, and continues to be produced. Soft-paste porcelains are fired at lower temperatures than hard-paste porcelain, therefore these items are generally less tough than hard-paste porcelain.
Bone china
Although originally developed in England in 1748 to compete with imported porcelain, Chinese bone is now made worldwide. The English had read the letters from the Jesuit missionary Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles, who described the secrets of Chinese porcelain manufacture in detail. One writer speculates that text misunderstanding may have been responsible for the first attempt to use bone ashes as a material of British porcelain, although this is not supported by researchers and historians. In China, kaolin is sometimes described as forming the 'bone' of the paste, while the 'meat' is provided by a fine stone suitable for the porcelain body. Traditionally, English bone china is made from two parts of the bone-ash, one part kaolin and one piece of porcelain stone, although this has largely been replaced by feldspars from non-English sources.
Other uses
Electrical insulation materials
Porcelain and other ceramic materials have many applications in the field of engineering, especially ceramic techniques. Porcelain is an excellent insulator for use on high voltage, especially in outdoor applications, see Insulator (electrical) # Material. Examples include: terminals for high voltage cables, bushing power transformers, high frequency antenna insulation, and many other components.
Building materials
Porcelain can be used as a building material, usually in the form of tiles or large rectangular panels. Modern porcelain tiles are generally produced by a number of internationally recognized standards and definitions. Manufacturers are found worldwide with Italy becoming a global leader, producing more than 380 million square meters in 2006. Historical examples of rooms fully decorated in porcelain tiles can be found in several European palaces including those at the Galleria Sabauda in Turin, the Museo di Doccia di Sesto Fiorentino, Museo di Capodimonte in Naples, Royal Palace of Madrid and the nearby Royal Aranjuez Palace. and Nanjing Porcelain Tower. Other important examples include The Dakin Building in Brisbane, California, and the Gulf Building in Houston, Texas, which, when built in 1929, has a 21 meter (69 feet) porcelain logo on the outside. A more detailed description of the history, manufacture, and nature of porcelain tiles is given in the article "Porcelain Tiles: The New Revolution Begins."
Bathroom fittings
Due to its durability, rust inability and impermeability, glossy porcelain has been used for personal hygiene since at least the third quarter of the 17th century. During this period, porcelain chamber pots are usually found in upper-class European households, and the term "bourdaloue" is used as a pot name.
But the bathtub is not made of porcelain, but from porcelain enamel on a metal base, usually from cast iron. Porcelain enamel is a marketing term used in the US, and not porcelain but vitreous enamel.
Manufacturer
See also
- Blue and white porcelain (Qinghua, ??)
- Lithophane
- Sea spiders
- Faience
Note
References
- Smith, Lawrence, Harris, Victor and Clark, Timothy, Japanese Art: Masterpieces at the British Museum , 1990, British Museum Publications, ISBN: 0714114464
- Vainker, S.J., Chinese Pottery and Porcelain , 1991, British Museum Press, 9780714114705
- Watson, William ed., Great Japanese Exhibition: Art Period Edo 1600-1868 , 1981, Royal Arts Academy/Wiedenfield and Nicolson
Further reading
- Nomenclature of the European Community - European Commission Commission in Luxembourg, 1987.
- Burton, William (1906). Porcelain, Nature, Art and Industry . Batsford, London
- Le Corbeiller, Clare (1985). Italian porcelain eighteenth century. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBNÃ, 0-87099-421-2.
- Finlay, Robert (2010). The Pilgrim Art: Porcelain Culture in World History . Volume 11 California World History Library (illustrations ed.). University of California Press. ISBNÃ, 0-520-94538-7 . Retrieved April 24 2014 .
- Guy, John (1986). Guy, John, ed. Oriental trade ceramics in Southeast Asia, the ninth to sixteenth centuries: with catalogs of Chinese, Vietnamese and Thai items in the Australian collection (illustrated, revised ed.). Oxford University Press . Retrieved April 24 2014 .
- Valenstein, S. (1998). Chinese ceramic handbook , Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. ISBN 978-0-87099-514-9
External links
- How porcelain is made
- How porcelain bisque is made
- ArtLex Art Dictionary - Porcelain
- Rackham, Bernard. Porcelain Book in Project Gutenberg
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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