Since the 20th century, the role of the car has become very important although controversial. It is used worldwide and has become the most popular mode of transportation in more developed countries. In developing countries, car effects in the community are not visible, but they are significant. The development of cars built on top of the first transport sector was started by a train. It has introduced major changes in work patterns, social interactions, infrastructure and distribution of goods.
Despite this positive effect on access to remote places and the mobility convenience provided by the car, allowing people to geographically improve their social and economic interactions, the negative effects of the car on daily life can not be ignored. Although the introduction of mass-produced cars represents a revolution in industry and convenience, creating job demand and tax revenues, high levels of motorization also have grave consequences for society and the environment. The modern negative consequences of heavy automotive use include the use of non-renewable fuels, dramatic increases in accidental death rates, local community breakdowns, local economic decline, increased obesity and cardiovascular disease, air and noise pollution emissions, greenhouse gas emissions, generation urban sprawl and traffic, pedestrian separation and other active mobility transport facilities, decreased rail network, municipal decay and high cost per unit-distance where the car paradigm is based.
Video Effects of the car on societies
History
At the beginning of the 20th century, cars entered mass production. The United States produced 45,000 cars in 1907, but 28 years later, in 1935, this has risen almost 90-fold to 3,971,000. This increase in production requires a new, large workforce. In 1913 there were 13,623 people working for Ford Motor Company, but in 1915 it increased to 18,028. Bradford DeLong, author of The Roaring Twenties, tells us that "Many are lining up outside the Ford factory for an opportunity to work on what appears to them (and, for those who do not mind the speed of many assembly lines, are) the incredible Boondoggle of a work. "There is a surge in the need for workers in a new, high-tech company like Ford. Employment increased rapidly.
In fact, when motor age arrived in western countries in the early 20th century, many conservative intellectuals opposed the increase of motor vehicles on the road. This increases the space released for pedestrians, and brings a tremendous increase in pedestrian deaths caused by car crashes.
W.S. Gilbert, a famous British librarian writer, wrote to The Times on June 3, 1903:
Ten years later, Alfred Godley wrote a more complicated protest, "The Motor Bus", a poem that cleverly combined Latin grammar lessons with an expression of dislike for innovative motor transport.
Maps Effects of the car on societies
Access and convenience
Around the world, cars have allowed easier access to remote places. However, the average travel time to the places visited regularly has increased in major cities, as a result of widespread car adoption and urban sprawl, as well as the decommissioning of older tram systems. This is due to traffic congestion and increased distance between home and work caused by urban sprawl.
Examples of car access problems in underdeveloped countries are for example paving off Mexico Federal Highway 1 through Baja California, completing Cabo San Lucas connection to California. In Madagascar, another example, about 30% of the population does not have access to reliable streets and in China, 184 cities and 54,000 villages have no motor roads (or roads at all).
Certain developments in retail are in part due to car usage, such as fast food purchases and fuel shop shopping.
Economic change
Jobs and consumption habits
The development of cars has contributed to changes in job distribution, spending patterns, social interactions, manufacturing priorities and urban planning; the increasing use of cars has reduced the role of running, horses and railroads.
In addition to the money for road construction, the use of cars is also driven in many places through new zoning laws that allow any new business to build a number of parking based on the size and type of facilities. The effect is creating a lot of free parking, and business premises farther out of the way. In aggregate, this leads to less dense settlements and poorer lifestyles becoming less attractive.
Many new and suburban shopping centers do not install sidewalks, making pedestrian access dangerous. It has the effect of encouraging people to drive, even for a short trip that may be impassable, thereby enhancing and strengthening America's auto dependency. As a result of this change, employment opportunities for people who are not rich enough to own a car and for people who can not drive, due to age or physical disability, become very limited.
Economic growth
In countries with major automobile manufacturers, such as the United States or Germany, certain car dependency rates may be positive for the economy at the macroeconomic level, as it demands production of cars, resulting in job demand and tax revenues. This economic condition was particularly prevalent during the 1920s when the number of cars, worldwide, experienced a large annual average increase, but also during post-World War II economic expansion. Despite the growing effects provided by automakers on the economies of some countries, some other car-dependent countries, seized from the car industry and oil resources, must allocate large economic assets, to meet their mobility policies, which then affect their commercial balance. This situation is widely applicable in most European countries, because, disregarding some exceptions such as Norway, Europe relies heavily on imports for its fossil fuels. In addition, only a few European countries, such as Germany or France, have car manufacturers that are productive enough to meet their country's internal demand for cars. All of these factors are associated with a high degree of motorization, affecting economic growth in most European countries. Most African countries also rely on imported cars, usually used from Western countries, some of which are in a very outdated state. Finally, even countries with oil resources could lose refineries, such as Nigeria which has to import fuel even though it is a major oil producer.
Jobs in automotive industry
In 2009 the US auto manufacturing industry employed 880,000 workers, or about 6.6% of the US manufacturing workforce.
Traffic
Cycling continued to be more important in Europe during the first half of the twentieth century, but declined dramatically in the United States between 1900 and 1910. Cars became the preferred means of transportation. During the 1920s, bicycles were gradually considered children's toys, and by 1940 most bicycles in the United States were made for children. From the early 20th century until after World War II, the roadster was the most widely sold adult bike in the United Kingdom and in many parts of the United Kingdom. For many years after the advent of motorcycles and cars, they remained the primary means of adult transportation. In some places - both high and low - bikes have retained or regained this position. In Denmark, cycling policies were adopted as a direct consequence of the 1973 oil crisis while bike advocacy in the Netherlands began in earnest with a campaign against traffic deaths called "stopping child killings". Currently both countries have high capital for cycling despite high car ownership levels.
Cultural changes
Before the advent of cars, horses, walks and trams were the main mode of transportation within the city. Horses need a lot of care, and therefore are kept in public facilities that are usually far from where they live. The rich are able to defend the horse for personal use, then the term train trade is called the elite patronage. Horse dung left on the streets also creates sanitation problems.
The motorcycle made regular medium-range travel more convenient and affordable and after World War I car too, especially in areas without railroad tracks. Because the car does not require a break, faster than a horse-drawn vehicle, and soon has a lower total cost of ownership, more people can routinely travel farther than in the past. The construction of the highway in the 1950s continues this. Some experts suggest that much of this change began in the early days of the bike's golden age, from 1880 to 1915.
Changes to urban society
Beginning in the 1940s, most urban environments in the United States lost tram, cable car, and other forms of light rail, to be replaced by motor coaches or diesel buses. Many never return, but some urban communities end up installing fast transport.
Another change brought by automakers is that modern urban pedestrians should be more vigilant than their forebears. In the past, a pedestrian had to worry about the relatively slow-moving tram or other travel obstacles. With the proliferation of cars, pedestrians should anticipate the safety risks of traveling cars at high speed as they can cause serious injury to humans and can be fatal, unlike in the past when traffic deaths were usually due to horses running away from control.
According to many social scientists, the loss of pedestrian-scale villages has also cut communities. Many people in developed countries have fewer contacts with their neighbors and rarely walk unless they place a high value on the practice.
Suburban community scene
In the decades after World War II, the car was united in the United States with one family living in the form of a suburb. Suburban prosperity causes baby boomers to be away from their parents' difficulties. Past community standards, driven by scarcity and the need to share public resources, make way for new self-exploration credo. As the economies of the fifties and sixties thundered, car sales grew steadily, from 6 million units sold per year in the US to 10 million. Married women enter the economy and two car households become commonplace. However, in the seventies, the comparative economic stagnation experienced was accompanied by a self-reflection of society towards the changes brought by automobiles. Critics of the automotive community find little positive choices in the decision to move to the suburbs; physical movement is seen as a flight. The auto industry is also under attack from the bureaucratic front, and new emissions and CAFÃÆ' starts regulations are hampering the Big Three's profit margins.
Kenneth Schneider in Autokind vs. Mankind (1971) called for war against cars, scorned him for being a destroyer of the city, and likened his proliferation to illness. Vance Packard's famous social critics in the A Nation of Strangers (1972) blame the geographic mobility made possible by automobiles for loneliness and social isolation. Car sales peaked in 1973, with 14.6 million units sold, and did not reach comparable levels for another decade. The 1973 Arab-Israeli war was followed by the OPEC oil embargo, which led to price explosions, long gas lines, and talk of rationing.
While it may seem obvious, in retrospect, that the automotive/suburban culture will continue to flourish, as it did in the 1950s and 1960s, there is no such certainty at a time when British architect Martin Pawley wrote his seminal work The Private Future ( Personal Future) (1973). Pawley calls the car "a sign of privatization, the symbol and the actuality of withdrawal from the community" and considers that, despite its immediate misfortune, its dominance in North American society will continue. The car is a private world that allows for fantasy and escape, and Pawley estimates that it will grow in size, and in technology capacity. He sees no pathology in consumer behavior based on freedom of expression
Increased transportation accelerated the growth of cities and suburban development outside the suburbs on the streets of previous eras. Until the arrival of the car, factory workers live close to the factory or in the high density community further, connected to the factory by tram or train. Cars and federal subsidies for roads and suburban development that support car culture allow people to live in low-density settlements even farther from the city center and the integrated city environment. is a slight industrial suburb, partly due to the use of single zoning, they create some local work and residents make further distances to work every day as the suburbs continue to grow.
Cars in popular culture
In the United States
The car has a significant influence on the culture of the United States. Like other vehicles, cars are incorporated into works of art including music, books and movies. Between 1905 and 1908, more than 120 songs were written in which the car was the subject. Although authors such as Booth Tarkington criticize the age of cars in books including The Magnificent Ambersons (1918), the novel celebrates the political effects of motorisation including Free Air (1919) by Sinclair Lewis, who follows traces of the previous novel bike tour. Some early 20th century experts doubted the security and suitability that allowed female automobilists. Dorothy Levitt was among those who wanted to express concerns to rest, so much so that a century later only one country had a woman to encourage movement. Where the media of the nineteenth century has made the heroes of Casey Jones, Allan Pinkerton and other patrons of public transport, the new street movie offers a hero who finds freedom and equality, rather than duty and hierarchy, on the open road.
George Monbiot writes that the widespread culture of cars has changed voter preferences to the right wing of the political spectrum, and thinks that the automobile culture has contributed to the increased individualism and fewer social interactions between members of different socioeconomic classes. The American Motor League has been promoting more and better car making since the early days of the automobile, and the American Automobile Association joins a good road movement that began during the previous bike madness; when manufacturers and suppliers of established petroleum fuels, they also join construction contractors in lobbying the government to build public roads.
When tourism becomes motorized, individuals, families and small groups can vacation in remote locations such as national parks. Roads including the Blue Ridge Parkway are built exclusively to help urban communities experience the landscape previously only seen by a handful of people. Cheap restaurants and motels appear on favorite routes and pay wages for locals who are reluctant to join the downward trend of the rural population.
Europe
Road building is sometimes also influenced by Keynesian political ideology. In Europe, a massive road-building program was initiated by a number of democratic social governments after World War II, in an effort to create jobs and provide cars for the working class. From the 1970s, the promotion of cars increasingly became the hallmark of some conservative circles. Margaret Thatcher mentions "the great car economy" in a paper on the Road to Prosperity. The 1973 oil crisis and with it the fuel summation measures revealed for the first time in a generation, what a city without cars, reviving or creating environmental awareness in the process. Green parties are emerging in several European countries as a partial response to car culture but also as a political arm of the anti-nuclear movement.
Movies
The rise of car culture during the twentieth century, plays an important cultural role in theaters, especially through the bestselling films. Important characters such as James Bond, or those performed by James Dean, are always provided on the spot by powerful cars, which from time to time, have become cultural icons.
Car as a hobby
Over time, the car has grown beyond being a means of transportation or status symbol and a subject of interest and a favorite hobby among the many people of the world, who value cars for their skills, their performance, and the enormous array of activities one can do with his car. People who have an interest in cars and/or participate in a car hobby are known as "Car Enthusiasts".
One of the main aspects of this hobby is gathering. Cars, especially classic vehicles, are appreciated by their owners as having aesthetic, recreational and historic value. Such requests generate potential investments and allow some cars to command extremely high prices and become financial instruments in their own right.
The second major aspect of the car hobby is vehicle modification, as many car enthusiasts modify their cars to achieve improved performance or visual enhancement. Many subcultures exist in this car-hobby segment, for example, those who build their own custom vehicles, primarily based on appearances on original examples or reproductions of the pre-1948 US car market design and similar designs from the WWII era and earlier from elsewhere in the world, known as hot rodders, while those who believe cars should remain true to their original designs and unmodified are known as "Purists".
In addition, motorsport (both professional and amateur) as well as ordinary driving events, where fans from around the world gather to drive and show off their cars, are important pillars of the car hobby as well. Noteworthy examples are the annual event of the classic Mille Miglia car rally and the Gumball 3000 supercar race.
Many car clubs have been set up to facilitate social interaction and friendship among those who feel proud to own, maintain, drive and show their cars. Many prestigious social events around the world are currently centered around hobbies, a noteworthy example is the classic car show of Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance.
Safety and traffic collisions
Motor vehicle accidents account for 37.5% of accidental deaths in the United States, making them the leading cause of accidental deaths. Although travelers within the car suffer fewer deaths per trip, or per unit of time or distance, than most other private transport users such as bicyclers or pedestrians, cars are also more widely used, making car safety an important study topic. For those aged 5-34 in the United States, motor vehicle accidents are the leading cause of death, claiming the lives of 18,266 Americans each year.
It is estimated that motor vehicle collisions caused the deaths of about 60 million people during the 20th century around the same number of victims of World War II. Only in 2010 alone, 1.23 million people died due to traffic collisions.
Despite the high mortality rate, motor vehicle crash trends show a decline. Road toll numbers in developed countries show that car crash casualties have declined since 1980. Japan is an extreme example, with road deaths declining to 5,115 in 2008, which is 25% of the 1970 level per capita and 17% of the 1970 rate per vehicle mileage. In 2008, for the first time, more pedestrians from occupants of vehicles were killed in Japan by car. In addition to improving public road conditions such as lighting and separate walkways, Japan has installed intelligent transportation system technology such as a jammed car monitor to avoid accidents.
In developing countries, statistics may be very inaccurate or difficult to obtain. Some countries did not significantly reduce the total mortality rate, which stood at 12,000 in Thailand in 2007, for example. In the United States, twenty-eight states experienced a reduction in casualty casualty casualties between 2005 and 2006. 55% of passenger vehicles 16 years or more in 2006 did not use seatbelts when they fell. Trends in street deaths tend to follow Smeed's laws, empirical schemes linking increased per capita mortality rates with traffic congestion.
External and internal costs
Public or external charges
According to the Handbook on external cost estimates in the transport sector made by the University of Delft and which is the main reference in the EU for assessing car externality, the main external costs for driving a car are:
- congestion and scarcity costs,
- accident cost,
- the cost of air pollution,
- the noise cost,
- climate change costs,
- costs for nature and landscape,
- costs for water pollution,
- costs for soil pollution and
- the cost of energy dependence.
The use of cars for transportation creates barriers by reducing the landscape needed for walking and cycling. This may seem like a minor problem at first but in the long run, it poses a threat to children and parents. Transportation is the main land use, leaving less land available for other purposes.
Cars also contribute to air and water pollution. Although a horse produces more garbage, the car is cheaper, so much more in urban than horse ever. Hazardous gas emissions such as carbon monoxide, ozone, carbon dioxide, benzene and particulate matter can damage living organisms and the environment. Emissions from cars cause disability, respiratory illness, and ozone depletion. Noise pollution from cars can also potentially cause hearing loss, headaches, and stress for those who are frequently exposed.
In countries such as the United States, the infrastructure that allows car use, such as roads, roads and parking lots is funded by the government and supported through zoning and construction requirements. Fuel taxes in the United States account for about 60% of road construction costs and repairs, but little cost to build or repair local roads. Payments by users of motor vehicles are less than government spending associated with motor vehicle usage of 20-70 cents per gallon of gas. Zoning laws in many areas require large, free parking spaces to accompany new buildings. Public parking lots are often free or do not charge market rates. Therefore, the cost of driving a car in the US is subsidized, supported by businesses and governments that cover road and parking costs. This in addition to other external costs, car users do not pay such as accidents or pollution. Even in countries with higher gas taxes such as German riders do not fully pay the external costs they make.
Government support for this car through subsidies for infrastructure, roadway patrol enforcement fees, restoration of stolen cars, and many other factors that make public transportation a less economically competitive option for passengers when considering Out-of-pocket costs. Consumers often make choices based on those costs, and underestimate the indirect costs of car ownership, insurance, and maintenance. However, globally and in some US cities, tolls and parking fees partially offset heavy subsidies for driving. Proponents of transport planning policies often support tolls, increased fuel taxes, congestion prices and market prices for city parking as a means of balancing the use of cars in the city center with more efficient modes such as buses and trains.
When cities charge market rates for parking, and when bridges and tunnels are charged, driving becomes less competitive in terms of costs outside the pocket. If city parking is unreachable and roads are free, most vehicle usage fees are paid by general government revenues, subsidies for motor vehicle usage. This subsidized measure dwarfs federal, state, and local subsidies for infrastructure maintenance and price cuts for public transport.
Conversely, despite the environmental and social costs for trains, there is a very small impact.
Walking or cycling often has a positive impact on people because they help reduce health costs and produce almost no pollution.
Personal or internal charges
Compared to other popular passenger modes, especially buses or trains, this car has a relatively expensive travel cost per passenger. Motorcyclists in England seem to spend in their cars on average about 1/3 of their average net income, while riders in Portugal seem to spend 1/2 of their net income. For average car owners, depreciation represents about half the cost of running a car, but a typical rider underestimates this fixed cost by a large margin, or even ignoring it altogether.
In the United States, pocket spending on car ownership may vary depending on the country in which you live. In 2013, the annual cost of car ownership includes Georgia's largest improvements, insurance, gas and taxes ($ 4,233) and the lowest in Oregon ($ 2,024) with a national average of $ 3,201. Further, the IRS considers, for the calculation of tax deductions, that the car has a total cost for drivers in the US, 0.55 USD/mi, about 0.26 EUR/km. Data provided by the American Automobile Association show that the cost of ownership for cars in the United States increases by about 2% per year. The 2013 data provided by the Canadian Automotive Association concludes that the cost of ownership for compact cars in Canada, including depreciation, insurance, borrowing costs, maintenance, licensing, etc. Is CA $ 9500 per year, or about US $ 7300.
Kinetic vs. velocity consumer speed
The Austrian philosopher Ivan Illich, a critic of the habits of modern society, was one of the first thinkers to develop a concept called consumer speed . He wrote in his book Energy and Equity published in 1974:
Hal ini diketahui oleh mekanika klasik bahwa kecepatan kinetik rata-rata dari mobil dan penumpangnya hanyalah jumlah ruang perjalanan mobil, dibagi dengan waktu yang telah berlalu, yaitu:
di mana adalah jarak yang ditempuh oleh mobil dan adalah waktu yang dilalui, yaitu waktu yang berlalu selama perjalanan.
Although, to assess the speed of consumers, we must add up the amount of time actually allocated by car owners to work to be able to travel that distance. Then consumer speed are:
di mana adalah waktu yang diperlukan driver untuk bekerja, untuk melakukan perjalanan jarak tertentu menggunakan mobil tersebut.
Contoh
James (example), the owner of a public car and the driver who brought his car to work, spends the total (running and running costs) in his car an average of EUR5000 per year. Considering James only uses his car to start work and that one year has about 250 working days, James pays an average of EUR20 per working day to buy his car. Consider the average net salary James is EUR10 per hour; James needs to work 2 hours per day just to get the means of transport to work, a time strictly allocated to paying his car bill.
Jika ia tinggal 20 km jauhnya dari tempat kerjanya dan ia tiba di sana dalam setengah jam, maka ia membuat 40 km per hari selama satu jam (pulang pergi). Kecepatan rata-rata kinetiknya adalah:
In fact, James needs an average of 2 hours per day just to buy his car, the budget of working hours is strictly allocated to pay his car bill, so the speed of the consumer is:
only 1/3 of the kinetic speed.
See also
References
External links
- Forums for Cars and Communities
- web site for Carjacked book: Car Culture and Its Impact on Our Lives
- Traffic & amp; Highway Capacity
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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