Sugar is a generic name for carbohydrates that dissolve in sweet taste, many of which are used in foods. There are different types of sugars coming from various sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose (also known as dextrose), fructose, and galactose. The most commonly used "table sugar" or "sugar" as food is sucrose, glucose and fructose disaccharides. Sugar is used in ready-to-eat foods (eg, cakes and cookies) and added to some foods and beverages (eg, coffee and tea). In the body, sucrose is hydrolyzed into simple sugar fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from wheat kernels, and lactose from milk. A longer chain of sugar is called an oligosaccharide or polysaccharide. Some other chemicals, such as glycerol and alcohol sugar may also have a sweet taste, but are not classified as sugars. Dietary replacements for sugar include aspartame and sucralose, chlorinated derivatives of sucrose.
Sugar is found in most plant tissues and is present in sugar cane and sugar beet in enough concentration for efficient commercial extraction. In 2017-18, world sugar production is 185 million tons. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms (53 pounds) of sugar each year (33.1 kg in developed countries), equivalent to more than 260 calories of food per person per day. Since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugar, especially processed sugar, is good for human health. Consumption of excessive sugar has been implicated in the occurrence of obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, and tooth decay. Numerous studies have been undertaken to try to clarify positions, but with varying results, primarily because of the difficulty of finding populations for use as controls that do not consume or are largely free of sugar consumption.
Video Sugar
Etimologi
Etymology reflects the spread of commodities. From Sanskrit ?????? (? Arkar? ), which means "ground sugar or sweets," originally "grit, gravel", coming from Persia shakar < lang = "ar" title = "Arabic text"> ??? ( sukkar ), from which the medieval Latin
The English word Maps Sugar
History
Ancient and Middle Ages
Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and spread from there to modern Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass. It was not much or cheap in the early days and honey is more often used for sweeteners in most parts of the world. Initially, people chewed raw sugar cane to extract the sweetness. Sugarcane is a native of South and Southeast Asia. Different species appear to originate from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating from India and S. edule and S. officinarum originating from New Guinea. One of the earliest historical references to sugar cane is in the Chinese manuscript dating from the 8th century BC which states that the use of sugarcane originated from India.
In Indian medicine tradition (? Yurveda), sugarcane is known as Ik? U and cane juice is known as Ph ?? ita. Varieties, synonyms and characters defined in nigha ?? are we like Bh? Vaprak ?? a (1.6.23, sugarcane group).
The Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides in the 1st century AD describes sugar in his medical treatise De Materia Medica, and Pliny the Elder, a 1st-century Roman, describes sugar in his Natural History: "Sugar is made in Arabia too, but Indian sugar is better. This is a kind of honey found in rattan, white like chewing gum, and chewing between teeth.It comes in a lump the size of a candle, only used for medical purposes. "
Sugar is found in Europe in the 1st century. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until Indians discovered the method of turning sugarcane juice into crystal grains that were easier to store and move. The crystallized sugar was discovered during the Imperial Gupta period, around the 5th century. In local Indian languages ​​these crystals are called khanda (Devanagari: ????, Kha? A/i >), which is the source of the word candy . Indian sailors, who carry butter and sugar as supplies, introduce the knowledge of sugar on the various trade routes they pass. Monks, as they travel, bring the method of crystallizing sugar to China. During the reign of Harsha (r.606-647) in Northern India, Indian envoys in Tang China taught the method of sugarcane cultivation after Emperor Taizong of Tang (r.626-649) announced his interest in sugar. China then established the first sugar cane plantation in the seventh century. The Chinese document confirmed at least two missions to India, beginning in 647 CE, to acquire technology for sugar refining. In South Asia, the Middle East and China, sugar becomes the staple food and desserts.
The Crusaders brought back sugar with them to Europe after their campaign in the Holy Land, where they met a caravan with "sweet salt". At the beginning of the 12th century, Venice acquired some villages near Tire and established plantations to produce sugar for export to Europe, where it supplemented honey, which was previously the only sweetener available. The cross of William's historian William of Tire, writing at the end of the 12th century, describes sugar as "very important for the use and health of mankind". In the 15th century, Venice was a major refining and distribution center for sugar in Europe.
Modern history
In August 1492, Christopher Columbus stopped at La Gomera in the Canary Islands, for wine and water, intending to stay only four days. He became involved in romance with the governor of the island, Beatriz de Bobadilla y Ossorio, and stayed a month. When he finally sailed, he gave him a cutted cane, which became the first to reach the New World. The first sugarcane harvest was made in Hispaniola in 1501, and many sugar mills had been built in Cuba and Jamaica in the 1520s. The Portuguese brought sugarcane to Brazil. In 1540, there were 800 sugar cane factories on Santa Catarina Island and another 2,000 on the northern coast of Brazil, Demarara and Suriname.
Sugar was a luxury in Europe until the 18th century, when it became more widely available. Then it became popular and in the 19th century, sugar was considered a necessity. The evolution of flavors and demand for this sugar as an essential food ingredient releases profound economic and social change. This encourages, in part, the colonization of tropical islands and countries where labor-intensive sugarcane plantations and sugar mills can thrive. The demand for cheap labor to do the hard work involved in processing and processing increases the demand for the slave trade from Africa (especially West Africa). After slavery was abolished, there was a high demand for indentured workers from South Asia (especially India). Millions of slave laborers and contract laborers are brought to the Caribbean and America, the Indian Ocean colonies, Southeast Asia, the Pacific Islands, East Africa and Christmas. The modern ethnic mix of many countries that have settled in the last two centuries has been affected by the demand for sugar.
Sugar also causes some industrialization of areas where sugar cane grows. For example, Lieutenant J. Paterson, from the founding of Bengal, persuaded the British Government that sugarcane could be cultivated in British India with many advantages and at less cost than in the West Indies; as a result, the sugar factory was established in Bihar in eastern India. During Napoleonic Wars, sugar beet production increased in continental Europe because of the difficulty of importing sugar when shipment became the target of the blockade. In 1880, sugar beets were the main source of sugar in Europe. It was cultivated in Lincolnshire and other parts of the UK, although Great Britain continued to import major portions of sugar from its colonies.
Until the end of the nineteenth century, sugar was bought in bread, which had to be cut using a device called sugar. In the following years, more sugar is sold in bags. Sugar shack was produced in the nineteenth century. The first inventor of the process to make sugar in cube form is Moravian Jakub Kry? Tof Rad, director of a sugar company in Da? Ice. He started the production of cube sugars after being granted a five-year patent for the process on January 23, 1843. Henry Tate of Tate & amp; Lyle is the earliest manufacturer of other stone sugar at his refinery in Liverpool and London. Tate purchased a patent for the manufacture of sugar cubes from Germany's Eugen Langen, which in 1872 had invented different methods of processing stone sugar.
Chemistry
Scientifically, sugar freely refers to a number of carbohydrates, such as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or oligosaccharides. Monosaccharides are also called "simple sugars," the most important being glucose. Most monosaccharides have formulas corresponding to C
n H
2n O
n with n between 3 and 7 (deoxyribose being the exception). Glucose has a molecular formula C
6 H
12 O
6 . Typical sugar names end with - ose , as in "glucose" and "fructose". Sometimes such words can also refer to any type of water-soluble carbohydrate. Mono- and acyclic disaccharides contain aldehyde or ketone groups. This carbon-oxygen double bond (C = O) is the reactive center. All saccharides with more than one ring in the structure are produced from two or more monosaccharides that join the glycosidic bond with the loss of the resulting water molecule ( H
2 O ) per bond.
Monosaccharides in the form of a closed chain can form glycosidic bonds with other monosaccharides, creating disaccharides (such as sucrose) and polysaccharides (such as starch). Enzymes must hydrolyze or break these glycosidic bonds before they become metabolized. Following digestion and absorption of the main monosaccharides are present in the blood and internal tissues including glucose, fructose, and galactose. Many pentoses and hexoses can form ring structures. In the form of this closed chain, the aldehyde or ketone groups remain non-free, so many of the typical reactions of these groups can not occur. Glucose in the solution is mostly present in the form of a ring at equilibrium, with less than 0.1% of the molecules in the form of an open chain.
Natural polymers
Sugar biopolymers are common in nature. Through photosynthesis, plants produce glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P), 3-carbon phosphate sugar used by cells to make monosaccharides such as glucose ( C
6 H
12 O
6 ) or (as in sugarcane and beets) sucrose ( C
12 H
22 O
11 ). Monosaccharides may be further transformed into structural polysaccharides such as cellulose and pectin for the construction of cell walls or into energy reserves in the form of storage polysaccharides such as starch or inulin. Starch, which consists of two different glucose polymers, is a form of easily degraded chemical energy stored by cells, and can be converted into other types of energy. Another glucose polymer is cellulose, which is a linear chain consisting of several hundred or thousands of units of glucose. These are used by plants as structural components in their cell walls. Humans can digest cellulose only to some extent, although ruminants may do so with the help of symbiotic bacteria in their intestines. DNA and RNA are built from deoxyribose and ribose monosaccharides, respectively. Deoxyribose has the formula C
5 H
10 O
4 and ribose formula C
5 H
10 O
5 .
Flammability and response to heating
Because sugar is flammable when exposed to fire, sugar handling risks dust explosion. The risk of explosion is higher when the sugar has been milled to a prime texture, as for use in chewing gum. The Georgia sugar refinery explosion of 2008, which killed 14 people and injured 40, and destroyed most of the refineries, caused by the ignition of sugar dust.
In culinary use, exposing sugar to heat causes caramelization. When the process occurs, volatile chemicals such as diacetyl are released, producing a distinctive caramel taste.
Type
Monosaccharide
Fructose, galactose, and glucose are all simple sugars, monosaccharides, with the general formula C 6 H 12 O 6 . They have five hydroxyl groups (-OH) and carbonyl groups (C = O) and are cyclic when dissolved in water. They are each present as some isomers with dextro and laevo-rotator shapes that cause polarized light to deviate right or left.
- Fructose , or fruit sugar, occurs naturally in fruits, some root vegetables, cane sugar and honey and the sweetest of sugars. This is one component of sugar or table sugar. It is used as a high fructose syrup, which is produced from processed hydrolyzed corn starch to produce corn syrup, with the enzyme then added to convert the glucose part into fructose.
- In general, galactose does not occur in a free state but is a constituent with glucose from lactose disaccharide or milk sugar. It's less sweet than glucose. It is an antigenic component found on the surface of red blood cells that define blood type.
- Glucose , dextrose or grape sugar, occurs naturally in fruits and plant juices and is a major product of photosynthesis. Most of the digested carbohydrates are converted into glucose during digestion and that is the form of sugar transported around the animal's body in the bloodstream. This can be made from starch by the addition of enzymes or in the presence of acids. Glucose syrup is a form of glucose liquid that is widely used in the manufacture of foodstuffs. It can be produced from starch with enzymatic hydrolysis.
Disaccharides
Lactose, maltose, and sucrose are all compound sugars, disaccharides, with the general formula C 12 H 22 O 11 . They are formed by a combination of two molecular monosaccharides with the exception of water molecules.
- Lactose is a natural sugar found in milk. The lactose molecule is formed by a combination of galactose molecules with glucose molecules. It is broken down when consumed into its constituent parts by lactase enzyme during digestion. Children have this enzyme but some adults no longer mold it and they can not digest lactose.
- Maltose is formed during the germination of certain grains, the most famous barley, converted into malt, the source of the sugar name. Maltose molecules are formed by a combination of two glucose molecules. It's less sweet than glucose, fructose or sucrose. It is formed in the body during the digestion of starch by the amylase enzyme and itself is damaged during digestion by the enzyme maltase.
- Sucrose is found in sugar cane and sugar beet root. It also occurs naturally in addition to fructose and glucose in other plants, especially fruits and some roots such as carrots. The different sugar proportions found in these foods determine the range of sweetness experienced when eating them. The sucrose molecule is formed by a combination of glucose molecules with fructose molecules. After being eaten, sucrose is divided into its constituent parts during the digestion process by a number of enzymes known as sucrases.
Source
The content of general fruit and vegetable sugar is presented in Table 1. Comparison of fructose with fructose plus glucose was calculated by introducing fructose and glucose derived from sucrose.
- ^ A Carbohydrate figures are calculated in the USDA database and do not always match the amount of sugar, starch, and dietary fiber.
Production
Due to increased demand, sugar production in general has increased by around 14% over the period 2009 to 2018. The biggest importers are China, Indonesia and the United States.
Sugar Bits
By 2016, the global production of sugar beets is 277 million tons, led by Russia with 19% of the world total (table).
Sugar beets became the main source of sugar in the 19th century when methods for extracting sugar became available. This is a biennial plant, a variety that is cultivated Beta vulgaris in the Amaranthaceae family, a tuberous root containing a high proportion of sucrose. It is cultivated as a root plant in temperate climates with adequate rainfall and requires fertile soil. Plants are mechanically harvested in autumn and crowns of leaves and excess soil are discarded. The roots do not deteriorate rapidly and may lag in the clamps in the field for several weeks before being transported to the processing plant. Here the plants are washed and sliced ​​and the sugars extracted with diffusion. Lime milk is added to raw juice and dicarbonate in several stages to purify it. The water is evaporated by boiling the syrup under vacuum. The syrup is then cooled and sieved with sugar crystals. White sugar that crystallizes out can be separated in centrifuge and dried. It does not require further refinement.
Cane
Global sugar cane production in 2016 is 1.9 billion tons, with Brazil producing 41% of the world total and India 18% (table).
Sugarcane refers to some species, or their hybrids, from the giant grasses of the genus Saccharum in the Poaceae family. They have been cultivated in tropical climates in South Asia and Southeast Asia since ancient times for the sucrose found in their trunks. A major expansion in sugarcane production occurred in the 18th century with the establishment of slave farms in America. The use of slavery means that this is the first time that sugar becomes cheap enough for most people, who previously had to rely on honey for sweet foods. This requires an ice-free climate with sufficient rainfall during the growing season to harness the potential for large plant growth. Plants are harvested mechanically or by hand, cut long and delivered quickly to a processing plant (commonly known as a sugar factory). Here, it is ground and juice extracted with water or extracted by diffusion. The juice is then clarified with lime and heated to destroy the enzyme. The resulting thin syrup is concentrated in a series of evaporators, after which further water is removed by evaporation in a vacuum container. The resulting saturated solution is treated with a crystalline sugar and the sugar crystallizes out and is separated from the liquid and dried. Molasses are a by-product of the process and the fibers of the stem, known as bagasse, are burned to provide energy for the process of sugar extraction. Crystals from raw sugar have a sticky brown coating and can be used as they are or can be bleached by sulfur dioxide or can be processed in a carbonate process to produce a whiter product. About 2,500 liters (660Ã, USÃ, gal) of irrigation water is required for every one kilogram (2.2 pounds) of sugar produced.
Refine
Refined sugar is made from raw sugar that has undergone a refining process to remove molasses. Raw sugar is sucrose extracted from sugar cane or sugar beet. While raw sugar can be consumed, the purification process removes unwanted flavors and produces refined sugar or white sugar.
Sugar can be transported in large quantities to the country where it will be used and the purification process often occurs there. The first stage is known as affinity and involves immersing the sugar crystals in concentrated syrup which softens and removes the sticky brown layer without dissolving it. The crystals are then separated from the liquid and dissolved in water. The resulting syrup is treated either with carbonate or by phosphate process. Both involve the dense deposition of solids in the syrup and when they are filtered, many impurities are removed at the same time. Eliminating color is achieved by using granular activated carbon or ion exchange resin. The sugar syrup is concentrated by boiling and then cooled and sieved with sugar crystals, causing the sugar to crystallize. The liquor rotates in a centrifuge and the white crystals are dried in hot air and ready for packing or use. Excess liquor is made into refinery molasses.
The International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis sets the standard for measurement of refined sugar purity, known as ICUMSA number; a lower number indicates a higher purity level in refined sugar.
Refined sugar is widely used for industrial needs for higher quality. Refined sugar is purer (ICUMSA below 300) than raw sugar (ICUMSA more than 1,500). The degree of purity associated with the color of sugar, expressed by the ICUMSA standard number, the smaller ICUMSA number indicates higher purity of sugar.
Forms and uses
- Brown sugar is sugar, either containing residual molasses, or with granules deliberately coated with molasses to produce light-colored or dark sugars. They are used in baked goods, confectionery, and toffees.
- Sugar grains are used on the table, to sprinkle on food and to sweeten hot drinks (coffee and tea), and roast at home to add sweetness and texture to baked goods (pastries and cakes) and desserts (pudding and ice cream). They are also used as a preservative to prevent micro-organisms from growing and durable foods from pampering, such as candied fruits, jam, and marmelade.
- Turn the sugar and syrup mixed to the manufacturer's specifications and use it in breads, cakes, and drinks to match the sweetness, help moisture retention and avoid sugar crystallization. Liquid sugar is a strong syrup consisting of 67% sugar dissolved in water. They are used in food processing from a wide range of products including beverages, hard candy, ice cream, and jam.
- Low-calorie sugar and artificial sweeteners are often made from maltodextrin with additional sweeteners. Maltodextrin is an easily digestible synthetic polysaccharide consisting of short chains of glucose molecules and made by partial hydrolysis of starches. Added sweeteners are often aspartame, saccharin, stevia, or sucralose.
- Mill sugar (known as candied sugar and powdered sugar) is ground into fine powder. They are used as powdered sugar (also known as icing sugar or confectionary sugar), to clean the food and baking and confectionery. Molasses are generally used to make rum, and sugar byproducts are used to make ethanol as fuel.
- Polyol is an alcoholic sugar and is used in chewing gum where a sweet taste is needed that lasts for a long time in the mouth.
- The scanned sugar is a crystalline product separated by grain size. They are used for ornamental table sugar, to mix in dry mixture and in pastry and confectionery.
- Sugar hut (sometimes called sugar lump) is a lightly steamed white or brown sugar and steamed together in blocks. They are used for sweet drinks. Sugarloaf is a common cone shape in which refined sugar is produced and sold until the late 19th century. This form is still used in Germany (for the preparation of Feuerzangenbowle ), in Iran and Morocco.
- Syrups and treacles are dissolved to reverse the heated sugar to expand its flavor. (Treacles have added molasses.) They are used in a variety of baked goods and confectionery including toffees and licorice.
- In wine making, fruit sugar is converted to alcohol by fermentation process. If it should be formed by pressing the fruit to have a low sugar content, added sugar can be added to raise the alcohol content of the wine in a process called chaptalization. In the production of sweet wine, fermentation can be stopped before he runs the whole dish, leaving behind the remaining sugar that gives the wine a sweet taste.
Consumption
In most parts of the world, sugar is an important part of the human diet, making food more delicious and providing food energy. After cereals and vegetable oils, sugar from sugarcane and beets provide more kilocalories per capita per day than other food groups. According to one source, per capita sugar consumption in 2016 was highest in the United States, followed by Germany and the Netherlands.
Nutrition and flavor
Brown and white sugars are 97% to nearly 100% carbohydrates, respectively, with less than 2% water, and no dietary fiber, protein or fat (tables). Brown sugar contains moderate amounts of iron (15% of daily Intake Reference in 100 grams, see table), but a typical 4 gram serving (a teaspoon), will provide 15 calories and amount of negligible iron or other nutrients. Since brown sugar contains 5-10% molasses reintroduced during processing, its value to some consumers is a richer taste than white sugar.
Health effects
The 2003 WHO technical report provides evidence that high intake of sugary drinks (including fruit juice) increases the risk of obesity by increasing overall energy intake. The 'empty calorie' argument states that a diet high in added sugar will reduce the consumption of foods containing essential nutrients.
Obesity and metabolic syndrome
By itself, sugar is not a factor that causes obesity and metabolic syndrome, but more - when consumed in excess - is an unhealthy component of dietary behavior. Controlled experiments show that excessive consumption of sugary drinks increases body weight and body fat, and that sugar replacement by artificial sweeteners reduces weight. Another study showed a correlation between refined sugar ("free sugar") consumption and diabetic onset, and a negative correlation with fiber consumption.
Cardiovascular Disease
From a systematic review published in 2016, there is no evidence that sugar intake at normal levels increases the risk of cardiovascular disease. Sugars, especially fructose, have no unique effects that cause injury to the cardiovascular system, but excessive intake of excessive energy increases the risk of cardiovascular disease and metabolism.
Dependency
Reviews published in 2014 and 2016 show that sugar addiction does not occur in humans.
Hyperactive
Several studies have reported evidence of causality between refined sugar and hyperactivity. A 2003 WHO report shows that compelling evidence for sugar as a hyperactive cause is expected when the study does not control the intake of free sugars compared to unrefined sugars.
Tooth decay
The 2003 WHO report states that "Sugar is undoubtedly the most important dietary factor in the development of dental caries". For tooth decay, there is "compelling evidence from human intervention studies, epidemiological studies, animal studies and experimental studies, for the relationship between the amount and frequency of free sugar intake and dental caries" while other sugar consumption (complex carbohydrates) is usually associated. with lower caries levels. Also, studies have shown that consumption of sugar and starch have different effects on oral health, with consumption of starchy foods and fresh fruit associated with lower incidence of dental caries.
Alzheimer's Disease
Claims have been made from the Alzheimer's disease-sugar connection, but there is inconclusive evidence that cognitive decline is linked to the fructose diet or overall energy intake.
Recommended dietary intake
The World Health Organization recommends that adults and children reduce their free sugar intake to less than 10% of total energy intake. Reduction to below 5% of total energy intake brings additional health benefits, especially in what considers dental caries (cavities in teeth). This recommendation is based on the totality of available evidence reviewed on the relationship between free sugar intake and weight and dental caries. Free sugar includes monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods and beverages by producers, cooks or consumers, and sugars that naturally exist in honey, syrup, fruit juices, and fruit juice concentrates.
On May 20, 2016, the US Food and Drug Administration announced a change to the Nutrition Facts panel featured on all foods, to be effective by July 2018. New on the panel is a requirement to list "Added Sugar" by weight and as a percentage of the Daily Value DV). For vitamins and minerals, the purpose of DV is to show how much to consume. For added sugar, the guidance is 100% DV should not be exceeded. 100% DV is defined as 50 grams. For someone who consumes 2000 calories a day, 50 grams, an amount not exceeding, is equal to 200 calories, and thus 10% of total calories - the same guide as the World Health Organization. To put this into context, at most 12 ounces (335 mL) of soda cans contain 39 grams of sugar. In the United States, a recently published government survey on food consumption reported that for men and women age 20 and older the average total sugar intake - natural in the diet and added - respectively, 125 and 99 g/day.
Measurement
Various culinary sugars have different densities due to differences in particle size and moisture inclusions.
Sugar Domino gives the following weight to volume conversion (in the general unit of the United States):
- Solid brown sugar 1 lb = 2.5 cups (or 1.3 L per kg, 0.77 kg/L)
- Sugar 1 pound = 2.25 cups (or 1.17 L per kg, 0.85 kg/L)
- Refined sugar unfilled 1 pound = 3.75 cups (or 2.0 L per kg, 0.5 kg/L)
"Engineering Resources - Bulk Density Chart" published in Powder and Bulk provides different values ​​for bulk density:
- bit sugar 0,80 g/mL
- Dextrose sugar 0.62 g/mL (= 620kg/m ^ 3)
- sand sugar 0.70 g/mL
- Powdered sugar 0.56 g/mL
Society and culture
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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