The study of music and emotion seeks to understand the psychological relationship between human and musical influences. It is the branch of music psychology with various fields of study, including the nature of emotional reactions to music, how the characteristics of the listener can determine what emotions are felt, and which components of musical compositions or performances which may elicit a particular reaction. This field is interesting and has significant implications for areas such as philosophy, musicology, music therapy, music theory and aesthetics, as well as composition and performance of music.
Video Music and emotion
Philosophical Approach
Emotional appearance
The two most influential philosophers in aesthetic music are Stephen Davies and Jerrold Levinson. Davies explains his concept of emotional expression in the emotion of musical appearance, which states that music expresses emotion without feeling it. Objects can convey emotions because their structure can contain certain characteristics that resemble emotional expressions. "The most important resemblance to musical expression... is between the dynamic structure of music while the configuration of human behavior associated with emotional expression." Observers can take note of the emotions of posture, style, movement, attitude, and listener behavior.
The association between music and emotion features is different among individuals. The appearance of emotionalism claims that many listeners who perceive the association are expressions of music. Which musical traits are more often associated with which emotions are part of music psychology. Davies claims that expressive is an objective property of music and not subjective in the sense of being projected into music by the listener. Musical expression certainly depends on the response, which is realized in the assessment of the listener. Skilled listeners are very similar to the expressive emotions of a particular piece of music, thus pointing out according to Davies (2006) that musical expressivity is rather objective because if music is less expressive, then there is no expression that can be projected into it as a reaction to music.
Process Theory
The philosopher Jenefer Robinson assumes the existence of interdependence between cognition and elicitation in his description of 'emotion as process, music as process' theory (or 'process' theory). Robinson argues that the process of emotional elicitation begins with an 'automatic, immediate response that initiates motor and autonomous activity and prepares us for possible actions' leading to a cognition process that allows listeners to 'name' perceived emotions. This series of events keeps up with new incoming information. Robinson argues that emotions can change into one another, causing mixing, conflicting, and ambiguity that makes it inhibiting to describe with one word the emotional state that a person experiences at a given moment; on the contrary, the inner feeling is better regarded as the product of some emotional 'stream'. Robinson argues that music is a series of simultaneous processes, and therefore an ideal medium for reflecting more 'cognitive' emotional aspects such as music themes 'want' resolution or mirror process of leitmotif memory. This process of simultaneous music can strengthen or contradict one another and thus also reveal the way one emotion 'turns into another over time'.
Maps Music and emotion
Delivering emotions through music
The ability to feel emotion in music is said to flourish in early childhood, and increase significantly throughout the development. The ability to feel emotion in music is also influenced by cultural influences, and both similarities and differences in emotional perceptions have been observed in cross-cultural studies. Empirical research has seen where emotions can be delivered as well as the structural factors in music help contribute to the expression of perceived emotion. There are two schools of thought about how we interpret emotions in music. The cognitivist approach 'argues that music only displays emotion, but does not allow for personal experiences of emotion in the listener. Emotivists argue that music generates a real emotional response in the listener.
It has been argued that the emotion experienced by a piece of music is a function of multiplication of structural features, performance features, listener features, and contextual features of the work, displayed as:
- Emotion Experience = Structural features ÃÆ'â € "
ÃÆ'â € < Hearing features ÃÆ'â € " Contextual features
Where:
- Structural features = Segmental Features ÃÆ'â € "Suprasegmental Features
- Performance features = Performer skill ÃÆ'â € "Performer state
- Listener feature = Music skills ÃÆ'â € "Stable disposition ÃÆ'â €" Current motivation
- Contextual features = Location ÃÆ'â € "Events
Structure feature
The structural features are divided into two parts, segmental features and suprasegmental features. Segmental features are the individual sounds or tones that make up the music; this includes acoustic structures such as duration, amplitude, and pitch. The suprasegmental feature is the basic structure of a work, such as melody, tempo and rhythm. There are certain music features that are strongly associated with certain emotions. In factors that affect emotional expression in music, tempo is usually considered the most important, but a number of other factors, such as mode, loudness, and melody, also affect the emotional valence of the work.
Performance features
Performance feature refers to the way in which a piece of music is run by the player (s). It is divided into two categories, player skills and player state. The player's skill is the combined ability and appearance of the player; including physical appearance, reputation and technical skills. The status of the player is the interpretation, motivation, and presence of the stage from the player.
Listener feature
The listener's feature refers to the individual and social identity of the listener (s). This includes personality, age, music knowledge, and motivation to listen to music.
Contextual features
Contextual features are aspects of performance such as locations and special occasions for performances (ie, funerals, weddings, dances).
These different factors influence the emotions expressed on different magnitudes, and their effects are exacerbated by each other. Thus, experienced emotions are felt to a stronger level if there are more factors. The order of the factors listed in the model shows how much weight in the equations they carry. For this reason, most research has been done in structural features and features of the listener.
Conflicting gestures
Which emotion is felt depends on the context of the piece of music. Previous research has argued that opposing emotions such as happiness and sadness fall on the bipolar scale, where both can not be felt at the same time. More recent research shows that happiness and sadness are experienced separately, implying that they can be felt simultaneously. One study investigated the last possibility by asking participants to listen to music excerpts manipulated by computers that have mixed cues between tempo and fashion. Examples of mix-cue music include songs with a primary key and a slow tempo, and a fast-chord minor song. The participants then assess the extent to which the piece conveys happiness or sadness. The results show that mixed-gesture conveys both happiness and sadness; However, it remains unclear whether participants feel happiness and sadness simultaneously or oscillate between these two emotions. A follow-up study was conducted to examine these possibilities. While listening to mixed or consistent cues music, the participants pressed a button when the music conveys happiness, and another button when it conveys sadness. The results show that the subject presses both buttons simultaneously during a song with conflicting cues. These findings indicate that the listener can feel happiness and sadness simultaneously. This has significant implications for how structural features affect emotions, because when mixed structural cues are used, a number of emotions can be delivered.
Special listener features
Development
Studies show that the ability to understand emotional messages in music begins early, and improves the overall development of the child. Studies that investigate music and emotions in children primarily play music quotes for children and ask them to see facial expressions. These facial expressions display different emotions and children are asked to choose the face that best matches the musical emotional tone. Research has shown that children can assign certain emotions to pieces of music; However, there is a debate about the age at which this ability begins.
Baby
A baby is often exposed to a musical mother's speech. It is possible that this mothering song allows mothers to convey emotional messages to the baby. Babies also tend to prefer to speak positively with neutral speech as well as happy music with negative music. It has also been assumed that listening to their mother's singing can play a role in identity formation. This hypothesis is supported by research that interviews adults and asks them to describe the musical experience from their childhood. The findings suggest that music is good for developing emotional knowledge during childhood.
Pre-school children
These studies have shown that children at the age of 4 can begin to distinguish between emotions found in musical quotes in a similar way to adults. The ability to differentiate these musical emotions seems to increase with age to adulthood. However, children at 3 years of age can not make the difference between the emotions expressed in music through matching facial expressions with the kind of emotions found in music. Some emotions, such as anger and fear, are also found to be more difficult to differentiate in music.
Children of the elementary age
In studies with four-year-olds and five-year-olds, they were asked to label music quotes with "happy," "sad," "angry," and "scared" labels. Results in one study showed that four-year-olds did not appear above the chances with "sad" and "angry" labels, and five-year-olds did not appear above the odds with a "fear" label. A follow-up study found conflicting results, in which five-year-old children act like adults. However, all ages are confused categorizing "angry" and "fear". Pre-school children and elementary-aged children listen to twelve short melodies, each in either large or small mode, and instructed to choose among four facial images: happy, satisfied, sad, and angry. All children, even as young as three years, do above chance in setting a positive face with main mode and a negative face with minor modes.
Personality effects
Different people feel different events based on their individual characteristics. Similarly, the emotions generated by listening to different kinds of music seem to be influenced by factors such as personality and previous musical training. People with a personality type who agree have been found to have a higher emotional response to music in general. Strong sadness has also been associated with people with acceptable personality types and neuroticism. While some studies have shown that music training can be correlated with music that evokes mixed feelings as well as higher IQ and emotional comprehension score tests, other studies have denied the claim that music training affects the perception of emotion in music. It should also be noted that previous music exposure can influence future behavioral choices, schoolwork, and social interactions. Therefore, previous music exposure seems to have an effect on the personality and emotions of a child later in life, and then it will affect their ability to feel and express emotions during music exposure. Sex, however, has not been proven to lead to differences in emotional perceptions found in music. Further research on which factors influence a person's perception of emotion in music and the ability of individuals to have music-induced emotions is needed.
Bringing emotions through music
Along with research that music conveys emotion to its listener (s), it has also shown that music can generate emotion in the listener (s). This view often leads to debate because the emotions are generated in the listener, and consequently difficult to measure. Regardless of the controversy, research has shown an observable response to emerge emotions, which reinforce the Emotivist's view that music really brings a real emotional response.
Response to emotions gained
The structural features of music not only help convey emotional messages to the listener, but also can create emotion in the listener. These emotions can be a completely new feeling or may be an extension of an earlier emotional event. Empirical research has shown how listeners can absorb the expressions of these pieces as their own emotions, and solicit unique responses based on their personal experiences.
Emotional base
In a study of emotions, participants reported personally feeling certain emotions in response to listening to a piece of music. Researchers have investigated whether the same structure that conveys a particular emotion can cause it as well. The researchers presented quick tempo quotes, mainstream music modes and slow tempos, minor tone music for the participants; this musical structure is chosen because they are known to convey their own happiness and sorrow. Participants assess their own emotions with an increased level of happiness after listening to music with structures that convey increased happiness and sadness after music with a structure that conveys sadness. This evidence suggests that the same structure that conveys emotions in music can also generate the same emotion in the listener.
Given these findings, there is a certain controversy about music that evokes negative emotions. Cognitivists argue that choosing to listen to music that generates negative emotions such as sadness will be paradoxical, because the listener will not try to cause sadness. However, the emotive adherents claim that music does provoke negative emotions, and listeners knowingly choose to listen to feel sadness in a way that is not personal, similar to the desire of viewers to watch a tragic movie. The reason why people sometimes listen to sad music when feeling sad has been explored by interviewing people about their motivation to do so. As a result of this research it has indeed been found that people sometimes listen to sad music when feeling sad to intensify feelings of sadness. Another reason to listen to sad music when feeling sad is; to regain memory, to feel closer to others, to cognitive reappraisal, to feel friends with music, to distract someone, and to improve mood.
The researchers also found an influence between one's familiarity with a piece of music and the emotions it generates. In one study, half of the participants played twelve random music quotes once, and assessed their emotions after each piece. The other half of the participants listened to twelve random quotes five times, and began their ranking on the third repetition. The findings show that participants who listened to footage five times rated their emotions with a higher intensity than participants who only listened to them once. This shows that familiarity with music increases the emotion that the audience is experiencing.
Emotional memories and actions
Music may not only cause new emotions, but connect listeners with other emotional sources. Music serves as a powerful gesture to recall emotional memories into consciousness. Because music is a pervasive part of social life, attending weddings, funerals, and religious ceremonies, music brings back the emotional memories often associated with it. Music is also processed by the lower sensory levels of the brain, making it resistant to memory distortions later on. Therefore, creating a strong relationship between emotion and music in memory makes it easier to remember when asked by others. Music can also take advantage of empathy, encouraging emotions that are perceived by players or composers. Listeners can become sad because they realize that those emotions must be felt by composers, just as drama lovers can empathize with the actors.
Listeners can also respond to emotional music through action. Throughout music history is structured to inspire people into specific actions - to march, dance, sing or fight. As a result, heightens the emotion in all these events. In fact, many people report being unable to sit still when certain rhythms are played, in some cases even engaging in subliminal actions when physical manifestations must be suppressed. These examples can be seen in the spontaneous explosion of young children into motion when listening to music, or the gleeful expression shown at the concert.
Juslin & amp; Model BRECVEM VÃÆ'¤stfjÃÆ'¤ll
Juslin & amp; VÃÆ'¤stfjÃÆ'¤ll developed a seven-way model in which music can create emotions, called the BRECVEM model.
Brain Stem Reflex: This refers to a process in which an emotion is induced by music because one or more of the fundamental acoustic characteristics of music are picked up by the brainstem to mark a potentially important and urgent event. All other things being equal, a sudden, loud, dissonant, or temporal pattern feature quickly induces the passion or discomfort in the listener... The response reflects the auditory-sounding impact of the music as sound in its most basic sense. '
rhythmic retainer : 'This refers to the process in which the emotions are generated by a music because a strong external rhythm in music affects some of the listener's internal rhythms (such as heartbeat), such that the last rhythm adjusts in a direction and finally 'locked' into a common periodicity. The adjustable heart rate can then spread to other emotional components such as feelings, through proprioceptive feedback. This can produce an increase in passion in the listener. '
Evaluative Conditioning : 'This refers to a process in which emotions are induced by a piece of music just because this stimulus has been paired repeatedly with other positive or negative stimuli. So, for example, a particular piece of music may have happened repeatedly along with certain events that always make you happy (for example, meeting your best friend). Over time, through repetitive couples, music will eventually arouse happiness even without friendly interaction. '
Emotional Contagion: 'This refers to a process in which emotions are induced by a piece of music because the listener feels the emotional expression of the music, and then "imitates" this expression internally, which by both means the peripheral feedback of the muscle , or direct activation of the relevant emotional representation in the brain, leads to the same emotional induction. '
Visual Imagery : 'This refers to the process in which emotion is induced to the listener because it brings up visual images (eg, beautiful scenes) while listening to music.'
Episodic memory : 'This refers to the process in which the emotions are induced by the listener because the music evokes the memory of a particular event in the listener's life. This is sometimes referred to as the phenomenon of "Darling, they play our song".
Music Expectations : 'This refers to a process in which emotions are induced to the listener because of the specific features of music breaking, delaying, or asserting listeners' expectations about the continuation of music.'
Music expectations
Due to the violation of expectations in music, some interesting results have been found. For example, it has been found that listening to unusual music can sometimes cause meaningful threats and generate compensatory behavior to restore meaning.
Aesthetic Judgment and BRECVEMA
In 2013, Juslin created an additional aspect on the BRECVEM model called aesthetic valuation. These are the criteria that each individual possesses as a metric for the aesthetic value of music. This can involve a number of personal preferences that vary, such as messages delivered, skills presented or novelty styles or ideas.
Comparison of delivered and acquired emotions
Evidence for emotion in music
There is much evidence that listeners can identify certain emotions with certain types of music, but there is little concrete evidence that music can cause emotion. This is due to the fact that emotion is subjective; and as such, it is difficult to find valid criteria to study it. Listen and express emotions in music is usually understood from three types of evidence: self-report, physiological responses, and expressive behavior. Researchers use one or a combination of these methods to investigate the emotional reactions to music.
Self report
The self-report method is a verbal report by listeners about what they experience. This is the most widely used method for studying emotions and has shown that people identify emotions and personally experience emotions when listening to music. Research in this field shows that the listener's emotional response is very consistent. In fact, a meta-analysis of 41 studies of musical performances found that happiness, sadness, tenderness, threat, and anger were identified above the possibility by the listener. Other studies compared untrained listeners with music-trained listeners. Both groups were asked to categorize music quotes that convey the same emotions. The findings show that categorization does not differ between trained and untrained; thereby indicating that untrained listeners are very accurate in feeling emotions. It is harder to find evidence to elicit emotions, because it depends solely on the subjective response of the listener. This makes the report vulnerable to self-report bias as participants respond according to social recipes or respond because they think the experiment wants it. As a result, the validity of self-reporting methods is often questioned, and as a result researchers are reluctant to draw definite conclusions only from these reports.
Physiological response
Emotions are known to create physiological changes, or bodies, to a person, which can be tested experimentally. Some evidence suggests one of these changes exists within the nervous system. Arousing music is associated with increased heart rate and muscle tension; soothing music is connected to a decrease in heart rate and muscle tension, and an increase in skin temperature. Other studies have identified external physical responses such as shivering or goose bumps caused by changes in harmony and tears or a lump in the throat triggered by melodic changes. Researchers tested this response through the use of instruments for physiological measurements, such as pulse recording.
Expressive Behavior
People are also known to show outward manifestations of their emotional state while listening to music. Studies using facial electromyography (EMG) have found that people react with subliminal facial expressions when listening to expressive music. In addition, music provides a stimulus for expressive behavior in many social contexts, such as concerts, dances, and ceremonies. Although this expressive behavior can be measured experimentally, there are very few controlled studies that observe this behavior.
The power of effect
In comparisons between emotions generated and submitted, researchers have examined the relationship between two types of responses to music. In general, the study agrees that the ratings of feelings and perceptions are highly correlated, but not identical. More specifically, research can not be concluded whether a response has a stronger effect than others, and in what ways are these two responses related.
Delivered more than what
In one study, participants heard a random selection of 24 citations, displaying six kinds of emotions, five times in a row. Half the participants described the emotions that music delivered, and the other half responded by how the music made them feel. The results found that the emotions conveyed by the music were stronger than the emotions generated by the same piece of music. Other studies are investigated under the specific conditions of what strong emotions are delivered. The findings indicate that the ratings for the emotions conveyed are higher in a happy response to music with consistent cues to happiness (ie fast tempos and major modes), to sad responses to music with consistent cues for sadness (ie slow tempo and minor mode), and for general sad response. These studies show that people can recognize the emotions displayed in the music more easily than to feel them personally.
Sometimes delivered, sometimes causing
Another study that had 32 participants listened to twelve pieces of music and found that the power of emotion that is felt and inflicted depends on the structure of the piece of music. Emotions are felt stronger than emotions that are felt when the listener is judged for passion and positive and negative activation. On the other hand, the emotions gained are stronger than the emotions that are felt when judging for pleasure.
Spoken more than delivered
In another research analysis revealed that the emotional response is stronger than the emotional perception of the listener. The study used a design between subjects, in which 20 listeners assessed how far they felt four emotions: happy, sad, peaceful, and fearful. 19 different listeners assessed the extent to which they experienced each of these emotions. The findings indicate that all musical stimuli give rise to certain emotions for the group of participants to assess the emotions generated, while musical stimuli only occasionally convey emotions to participants in groups that identify the musical emotions that are conveyed. Based on these inconsistent findings, much research needs to be done to determine how the emotions conveyed and heard are the same and different. There is disagreement about whether music induces 'true' emotions or if the reported emotions felt in the study are the only participants who express the emotions found in the music they listen to.
Music as a therapeutic tool
Music therapy as a therapeutic tool has been shown to be an effective treatment for various diseases. Therapeutic techniques involve generating emotions by listening to music, composing music or lyrics and performing music.
Music therapy sessions may have the ability to help drug users who try to stop the drug habit, with users reporting feeling more able to feel emotion without the help of drug use. Music therapy can also be a viable option for people who have a long stay in the hospital because of illness. In one study, music therapy provided a child oncologist with enhanced environmental enhancement elements and elicited more child-friendly behaviors. When caring for troubled teenagers, a study by Keen revealed that music therapy has enabled therapists to interact with adolescents with less resistance, thus facilitating self-expression in adolescents.
Music therapy also shows great hope in individuals with autism, serves as an emotional outlet for these patients. While other ways of emotional expression and understanding may be difficult for people with autism, music can provide them with a limited understanding of socio-emotional cues as a way of accessing emotions.
References
Further reading
- Willimek, Daniela & amp; Willimek, Bernd (2013). "Abstract: 'Music and Emotions - Research on the Theory of Music Equilibrium (die Strebetendenz-Theorie) ' ". EUNOMIOS . CS1 maint: Using the author parameters ( link)
- Willimek, Daniela & amp; Willimek, Bernd (2013). Music and Emotions - Research on Music Equilibrium Theory (die Strebetendenz-Theorie) (PDF) . Wilimekmusic.de. Ã, CS1 maint: Using the parameter authors (links)
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