Hypnosis is a state of human awareness that involves focused attention and reduces peripheral awareness and capacity building to respond to suggestions. The term may also refer to the art, skill, or action of inducing hypnosis.
Theories that explain what happens during hypnosis fall into two groups. Altered state theories see hypnosis as a changed state of mind or trans, characterized by a different level of consciousness than the usual conscious state. In contrast, nonstate theories see hypnosis as a form of applying imaginative roles.
During hypnosis, a person is said to have a high focus and concentration. The person can concentrate intensely on a particular thought or memory, while blocking the source of the disturbance. The hypnotized subject is said to indicate an increased response to the suggestion. Hypnosis is usually induced by a procedure known as hypnotic induction involving a series of initial instructions and suggestions. The use of hypnotism for therapeutic purposes is referred to as "hypnotherapy", while its use as a form of entertainment for the audience is known as "stage hypnosis". Stage hypnosis is often performed by mentalists who practice the art form of mentalism.
Video Hypnosis
Etymology
The term "hypnosis" comes from the ancient Greek word ????? hypnos , "sleep", and suffix - ???? - osis , or from ????? hypno? , "asleep" (stem AORIST hypn? s -) and suffix - is . The words "hypnosis" and "hypnotism" are both derived from the term "neuro-hypnotism" (nervous sleep), all of which were created by ÃÆ'â € ° tienne FÃÆ' © lix d'Henin de Cuvillers in 1820. These words was popularized in English by Scottish surgeon James Braid (to whom they were sometimes wrongly attributed) around 1841. Braid bases his practice on that developed by Franz Mesmer and his followers (called "Mesmerism" or "animal magnetism"), but different in theory. how the procedure works.
Maps Hypnosis
Characteristics
Someone in hypnosis has focused on it, and has increased the suggestion.
The hypnotized individual seems to pay attention only to hypnotic communication and usually responds in a non-critical, automated way while ignoring all aspects of the environment other than what the hypnotist suggests. In a hypnotic state, an individual tends to see, feel, smell, and otherwise feel in accordance with the advice of the hypnotist, although these suggestions may be in real contradiction to the actual stimuli that exist in the environment. The effects of hypnosis are not limited to sensory changes; even the subject's memory and self-awareness can be changed by suggestion, and the effects of the suggestion can be extended (posthypically) into the subject's next waking activity.
It could be argued that hypnotic suggestion is explicitly intended to utilize the placebo effect. For example, in 1994, Irving Kirsch marked hypnosis as a "non-receptive placebo", that is, a method that openly exploits suggestions and uses methods to reinforce its influence.
In the Trance on Trial, a 1989 text directed at the legal profession, law scholar Alan W. Scheflin and Jerrold psychologist Lee Shapiro observed that "deeper" hypnotism, the more likely it is that certain characteristics arise, and the extent to which it manifested. Scheflin and Shapiro identify 20 separate characteristics that a hypnotized subject might display: "dissociation"; "detachment"; "suggestibility", "ideosensory activity"; "catalepsy"; "ideomotor response"; "age regression"; "resurrection"; "hypermnesia"; "[automatic or recommended] amnesia"; "posthypnotic response"; "hypnotic analgesia and anesthesia"; "anesthesia gloves"; "somnambulism"; "automatic writing"; "time distortion"; "release of obstacles"; "a change in capacity for will activity"; "Trance logic"; and "imagination without effort".
Definition
Historical definitions
The earliest definition of hypnosis is given by Braid, who coined the term "hypnotism" as an abbreviation for "neuro-hypnotism", or nervous sleep, which he contrasts with normal sleep , and is defined as: "strange conditions of the nervous system, caused by the constant and abstract attention of the mental and visual eyes, on one object, not from the exciting qualities. "
Braid outlines this brief definition in his next work, Hypnotic Therapeutics :
The origin and true essence of the hypnotic state, is the induction of a habit of abstraction or mental concentration, where, as in daydreams or spontaneous abstractions, the power of the mind is so engrossed with a single idea or train of thought, as, for incompetence, to make the individual unconscious, or indifferent to, any other ideas, impressions, or train of mind. Sleep hypnosis is, therefore, an antithesis or a mental and physical state contrary to that which precedes and accompanies normal sleep .
Therefore, Braid defines hypnotism as a state of mental concentration that often leads to a form of progressive relaxation, called "nervous sleep". Then, in his book The Physiology of Fascination (1855), Braid acknowledges that the original terminology is misleading, and argues that the term "hypnotism" or "nervous sleep" should be reserved for minorities (10%) subjects indicating amnesia , replacing the term "monoideism", which means concentration on one idea, as a description for the more vigilant circumstances experienced by others.
The new definition of hypnosis, derived from academic psychology, was given in 2005, when the Society for Psychological Hypnosis, Division 30 of the American Psychological Association (APA), published the following formal definition:
Hypnosis usually involves introductory procedures in which the subject is told that suggestions for imaginative experience will be presented. Hypnosis induction is an extended initial suggestion for using a person's imagination, and may contain further elaboration of the introduction. The hypnosis procedure is used to encourage and evaluate responses to suggestions. When using hypnosis, one person (subject) is guided by another (hypnotist) to respond to suggestions for changes in subjective experience, changes in perception, sensation, emotion, thought or behavior. One can also learn self-hypnosis, which is the act of managing self-hypnosis procedures. If the subject responds to hypnosis suggestions, it is generally concluded that hypnosis has been induced. Many believe that hypnotic responses and experiences are characteristic of a state of hypnosis. While some people think that it is not necessary to use the word "hypnosis" as part of hypnotic induction, others see it as essential.
Michael Nash gives a list of eight definitions of hypnosis by different authors, in addition to his own view that hypnosis is a "special case of psychological regression": Janet, near the turn of the century, and more recently Ernest Hilgard..., have defined hypnosis in terms of dissociation.
Joe Griffin and Ivan Tyrrell (the originator of the human givens approach) define hypnosis as "an artificial way to access REM, the same state of the brain in which dreams occur" and show that this definition, when correctly understood, solved "many of the mysteries and controversies surrounding hypnosis ". They see the state of REM as very important to life itself, to programming in our original instinctive knowledge (after Dement and Jouvet) and then to add this throughout life. They explain this by showing that, in a sense, all learning is post-hypnotic, which explains why the number of ways people can be put into a hypnotic state varies greatly: anything that focuses one's attention, inside or out, puts them into trance.
Hypnotic induction
Hypnosis is usually preceded by the technique of "hypnotic induction". Traditionally, this is interpreted as the method of placing the subject into "hypnotic trance"; however, the earlier "nonstate" theorists looked at it differently, seeing it as a means of enhancing client expectations, defining their role, focusing attention, etc. There are several different induction techniques. One of the most influential methods is Braid's eye-fixation technique, also known as "Braidism". Many variations of the eye-fixation approach exist, including the induction used in Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale (SHSS), the most widely used research tool in the field of hypnotism. Braid's original description of the induction is as follows:
Take any bright object (such as a lancet box) between the thumb and forefinger and the middle finger of the left hand; resistant from about eight to fifteen inches from the eye, in positions like above the forehead that may be required to produce the greatest strain on the eyes and eyelids, and allow the patient to maintain a fixed view of the object. >
The patient must be made to understand that he must keep the eye fixed on the object, and the mind is fixated on the idea of ​​one object. It will be observed, that because of the consensual adjustment of the eyes, the pupils will be initially contracted: They will soon begin to widen, and, after they have done so to some extent, and have taken a surging motion, if the front and center of the right hand extend and slightly apart, brought from the object toward the eye, most likely the eyelid will close unconsciously, with vibration motion. If this is not the case, or the patient allowing the eyeball to move, wants him to start a new one, give him to understand that he should let the eyelid close when the fingers are brought again toward the eye, but that the eyeball must be kept fixed, in the same position, and the mind is fixated on one idea of ​​the object held above the eye. In general, it will be found, that the eyelid closes with vibration motion, or becomes spasmodically closed.
Braid later acknowledged that hypnotic induction techniques were not required in each case, and subsequent investigators generally found that the mean contributed less than previously thought to hypnotic suggestive effects. Variations and alternatives of native hypnotic induction techniques were then developed. However, this method is still considered authoritative. In 1941, Robert White wrote: "It can be safely stated that nine out of ten hypnotic techniques require lying down, muscle relaxation, and optical fixation followed by eye closure."
Suggestions
When James Braid first described hypnotism, he did not use the term "suggestion" but instead refers to the action of focusing the conscious mind of the subject on a single dominant idea. Braid's major therapeutic strategy involves stimulating or reducing physiological functioning in different areas of the body. In later works, however, Braid placed an increasing emphasis on the use of different forms of verbal and non-verbal suggestions, including the use of "wake suggestions" and self-hypnosis. Furthermore, Hippolyte Bernheim shifts the emphasis from the physical state of hypnosis to the psychological process of verbal suggestions:
I define hypnotism as an induced psychological [ie mental] condition that increases susceptibility to suggestion. Often, it is true, sleep [hypnosis] that may be induced facilitates suggestions, but this is not a necessary start. This is a suggestion that regulates hypnotism.
Bernheim's conception of the virtue of verbal suggestions in hypnotism dominated the subject throughout the twentieth century, causing some authorities to declare him the father of modern hypnotism.
Contemporary hypnotism uses various forms of advice including direct verbal suggestions, "indirect" verbal suggestions such as requests or satire, other rhetorical metaphors and metaphors, and non-verbal suggestions in the form of mental images, tone of voice, and physical manipulation.. Differences are usually made between suggestions that are "permissive" and are delivered in a more "authoritarian" way. Harvard Hypnotherapist Deirdre Barrett writes that most modern research suggestions are designed to generate an immediate response, whereas hypnotherapy advice is usually post-hypnotic in nature to trigger a response that affects behavior for a period ranging from days to life. The hypnotherapy is often repeated in several sessions before achieving peak effectiveness.
The conscious and unconscious mind
Some hypnotists view advice as a form of communication directed primarily to the conscious mind of the subject, while others see it as a means of communicating with the "subconscious" or "unconscious" mind. These concepts were introduced to hypnotism in the late 19th century by Sigmund Freud and Pierre Janet. Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory portrays the conscious mind as being on the surface of the mind and the subconscious process as something deeper in the mind. Braid, Bernheim, and other Victorian hypnotist pioneers do not refer to the subconscious mind but see hypnotic suggestions as directed to the conscious mind of the subject. Indeed, Braid really defines hypnotism as the (conscious) focus of attention on the dominant idea (or suggestion). Different views of the nature of mind have led to different conceptions of suggestion. The hypnotists who believe that the response is mediated primarily by "unconscious minds", such as Milton Erickson, make use of indirect suggestions such as metaphors or stories whose meaning he wants may be hidden from the conscious mind of the subject. The concept of subliminal suggestion depends on this view of mind. In contrast, hypnotists who believe that responses to suggestions primarily mediated by conscious thought, such as Theodore Barber and Nicholas Spanos, tend to use more direct verbal advice and instruction.
ideo-dynamic reflex
The first neuropsychological theory of hypnotic suggestion was introduced earlier by James Braid who adopted the theory of his friend and colleague William Carpenter about the ideo-motor reflex response to explain the phenomenon of hypnotism. Carpenter has observed from close examination of everyday experiences that, in certain circumstances, only the idea of ​​muscle motion can be enough to produce the reflexive, or automatic, or involved muscle contraction, albeit in a very small degree. Braid extended Carpenter's theory to include the observation that various kinds of body responses other than muscle movement can be so affected, for example, the idea of ​​sucking lemon juice can automatically stimulate saliva, the secretion response. Therefore, Braid adopted the term "ideo-dynamic", which means "by the power of an idea", to explain the various phenomena of "psycho-physiological" (mind-body). Braid coined the term "mono-ideodynamic" to refer to the theory that hypnotism operates by focusing on one idea to strengthen the dynamic-emotional reflex response. The variations of basic motor, or ideo-dynamic, suggestion theories continue to have considerable influence on subsequent hypnotic theory, including Clark L. Hull, Hans Eysenck, and Ernest Rossi theories. It should be noted that in Victorian psychology the word "idea" includes all mental representations, including mental imagery, memories, etc.
Vulnerability
Braid makes a rough distinction between the various stages of hypnosis, which he calls the first and second conscious stages of hypnotism; he subsequently replaced it with the distinction between "sub-hypnotic", "full hypnosis", and "coma hypnotic" stages. Jean-Martin Charcot made the same distinction between the stages he named somnambulism, lethargy, and katalepsy. However, Ambroise-Auguste LiÃÆ'Â beault and Hippolyte Bernheim introduce a more complex scale of "depth" of hypnosis based on a combination of behavioral, physiological, and subjective responses, some of which are direct advice and some are not. In the first few decades of the 20th century, this initial clinical "depth" scale was replaced by a more sophisticated scale of "hypnosis susceptibilities" based on experimental research. The most influential are the Davis-Husband and Friedlander-Sarbin scales developed in the 1930s. AndrÃÆ'Â © Weitzenhoffer and Ernest R. Hilgard developed the Hypnotic Vulnerability Scale in 1959, consisting of 12 items of suggestion tests following standard hypnotic eye fixation scripts, and this has been one of the most heavily referenced research tools in the field of hypnosis. Soon after, in 1962, Ronald Shor and Emily Carota Orne developed the same group scale called the Harvard Vulnerability Hypnotic Scale Group (HGSHS).
While the older "deep scale" tries to conclude the "trans hypnosis" level of observable signs such as spontaneous amnesia, the most recent scale has measured responsive levels of responsiveness that are observed or evaluated alone for specific suggestions. tests such as direct suggestion of arm stiffness (katalepsy). The Stanford, Harvard, HIP, and most other vulnerability scales convert numbers into one's vulnerability assessment as "high", "moderate", or "low". About 80% of the population is, 10% high, and 10% low. There is some controversy as to whether this is distributed on the "normal" bell curve or whether it is bi-modal with a small "blip" of people at the top end. Hypnotisability score is very stable during one's lifetime. Research by Deirdre Barrett has found that there are two different types of vulnerable subjects, which he calls fantasizers and dissociaters. Fantasizer has a high absorption scale, it's easy to block real-world stimuli without hypnosis, spend a lot of time daydreaming, report imaginary friends as a child, and grow up with parents who encourage imaginary games. Dissociaters often have a history of childhood abuse or other trauma, learn to escape to numbness, and forget about unpleasant events. Their association for "daydreaming" often becomes empty rather than creating a clearly remembered fantasy. Both scores are equally high on the formal scale of hypnotic susceptibility.
Individuals with dissociative identity disorder have the highest hypnotisability of any clinical group, followed by those with post-traumatic stress disorder.
History
Precursors
People have entered the trans-type of hypnosis for thousands of years. In many cultures and religions, it is considered a form of meditation. Modern day hypnosis, however, began in the late 18th century and was popularized by Franz Mesmer, a German physician known as the father of 'modern hypnotism'. In fact, hypnosis was once known as 'Mesmerism' as it was named Mesmer.
Mesmer argues that hypnosis is a kind of mystical force that flows from hypnotist to hypnotized person, but his theory is rejected by critics who assert that there is no magical element for hypnotism.
Soon, hypnotism began to find its way into the world of modern medicine. The use of hypnotism in the medical field was made popular by surgeons and doctors such as Elliotson and James Esdaille and researchers like James Braid who helped reveal the biological and physical benefits of hypnotism. According to his writings, Braid began to hear reports on various practices of Oriental medicine soon after the release of his first publication on hypnotism, Neurypnology (1843). He first discussed some of these oriental practices in a series of articles titled Magic, Mesmerism, Hypnotism, etc., Historically & amp; Physiologically Considered . He draws an analogy between his own hypnotic practice and various forms of Hindu yoga meditation and other ancient spiritual practices, especially those involving genuine voluntary burial and human hibernation. Braid's interests in these practices stem from his study of "Dabist? N-i Maz? Hib", "School of Religion", an ancient Persian text depicting various Oriental rituals, creeds and religious practices.
Last May [1843], a man living in Edinburgh, personally unknown to me, who has lived in India, likes me with a letter expressing his approval of my published view of the nature and causes of hypnotic and mesmeric phenomena. In reinforcing my point of view, he refers to what he had previously witnessed in the oriental region, and recommended me to look into Dabistan , a book published recently, for additional evidence for the same effect. On many of my recommendations I immediately sent for a copy of Dabistan , where I found many statements reinforcing the fact that the Eastern saints are all self-hypnotisers, adopting the same basic means as I have recommended for the purpose similar.
Although he rejects the transcendental/metaphysical interpretation given to this phenomenon directly, Braid accepts that these stories of Oriental practices support his view that the effects of hypnotism can be produced in solitude, in the absence of others (for he has proved his own satisfaction with experiments which he did in November 1841); and he saw the correlation between his many "metaphysical" oriental practices and his own rational "neuro-hypnosis," and completely rejected all the fluid theory and magnetic practices of the mesmerists. As he then wrote:
As many patients can throw themselves into a nervous sleep, and manifest all the usual Mesmerism phenomena, through their own unassisted efforts, as I have repeatedly proved by causing them to maintain a steady, fixed gaze at any point, concentrating all mental energy on the idea of ​​the object looked; or that the same may be the case with patients who see their own fingerprints, or when the Magi from Persia and Yogis from India have been practicing for the last 2,400 years, for religious purposes, throwing themselves into their ecstasy transits by each maintaining a fixed gaze stable at the tip of his own nose; it is clear that no exoteric influence is needed to produce the Mesmerism phenomenon. [...] The great object in all these processes is to induce the habit of abstraction or concentration of attention, where the subject is fully absorbed with one idea, or train ideas, while he is unconscious, or indifferent to, any object, purpose, or action other.
Avicenna
Avicenna (980-1037), a Persian physician, documented the characteristics of a "trance" (Hypnotic Trance) state in 1027. At that time, hypnosis as a medical treatment was rarely used until German physician Franz Mesmer introduced it back in the 18th century.
Franz Mesmer
Franz Mesmer (1734-1815) believed that there is a magnetic force or "liquid" called "animal magnetism" within the universe that affects the health of the human body. He experimented with magnets to influence this field to produce healing. Around 1774, he concluded that the same effect could occur by surrendering the hand in front of the subject's body, which came to be called a "Mesmeric leap". The word "lure", formed from the last name of Franz Mesmer, is purposely used to separate the practitioners of mesmerism from the various "fluid" and "magnetic" theories included in the "magnetic" label.
In 1784, at the request of King Louis XVI, the Inquiry Council began to investigate whether animal magnetism exists. Among the board members are the father of modern chemistry, Antoine Lavoisier, Benjamin Franklin, and pain control expert, Joseph-Ignace Guillotin. They investigated the practices of a dissatisfied Mesmer disciple, one Charles d'Eslon (1750-1786), and although they concluded that Mesmer's results were valid, their placebo-controlled experiments using the d'Eslon method convinced them that mesmerism was most likely attributable to belief and imagination rather than invisible energy ("animal magnetism") transmitted from the mesmeric body.
In writing the majority opinion, Franklin said: "This Mesmer does not drain anything from his hands that I can see, therefore this mesmerism must be a deception." Mesmer left Paris and returned to Vienna to practice mesmerism.
James Braid
Following the findings of the French committee, Dugald Stewart, an influential academic philosopher of the Scottish School of Common Intellect, encouraged physicians in the 1818 to save the element of Mesmerism by substituting the supernatural theory of "animal magnetism" with a new interpretation based on the "common sense" laws of physiology and psychology. Braid quotes the following quotation from Stewart:
It seems to me, that the general conclusion set by the Mesmer practice, with respect to the physical effects of the principle of the imagination (especially in cases where they cooperate), is much more curious than if he really showed his existence. from his proud science [about "animal magnetism"]: I also can not see a good reason why a doctor, who recognizes the efficacy of a moral agent (ie, psychologically) used by Mesmer, should, in practicing his profession, object to copying what process also required to subdue them on his orders, more than that he must hesitate to use a new physical agent, such as electricity or galvanism.
On the day of Braid, Scottish Common Sense School gave the dominant academic psychology theory, and Braid referred to other philosophers in this tradition throughout his writings. Therefore, Braid revised the theory and practice of Mesmerism and developed his own method of hypnosis as a more rational and common sense alternative.
It may be necessary here for me to explain, that by the term Hypnotism, or Nervous Sleep, which often occurs in the subsequent pages, I mean the strange condition of the nervous system, where it may be thrown by artificial discovery, and different, in some ways , from regular sleep or waking conditions. I am not charging that this condition is caused by the transmission of magnetic or occult influences from my body to my patient's body; I also do not acknowledge, by my process, to produce a higher (ie, supernatural) phenomenon of the Mesmerists. My despair is a much more humble character, and everything is consistent with generally accepted principles in physiological and psychological sciences. Therefore, hypnotism may not be covertly established, Rational Mesmerism, contrary to Mesmeric Mesmerism's Mesmerism Mesmerism.
Despite briefly playing around with the name "rational Mesmerism," Braid finally chose to emphasize the unique aspect of his approach, conducting informal experiments throughout his career to refute practices that use supernatural powers and demonstrate instead of the role of ordinary physiological and psychological processes. such as focused advice and attention in producing the observed effect.
Braid worked very closely with his friend and allied physiologist, Professor William Benjamin Carpenter, an early neurologist who introduced the theory of "reflex motors". Carpenter has observed examples of hopes and imaginations that seem to affect unconscious muscle movements. The classic example of ideo-motor principles in action is the so-called "pendulum Chevreul" (named after Michel Eugène Chevreul). Chevreul claims that divinatory pendants are made to be swung by unconscious muscle movements caused by focused concentration alone.
Braid immediately assimilated Carpenter's observations into his own theory, recognizing that the focusing effect of attention was to improve the motor-motor reflex response. Braid extended Carpenter's theory to include the influence of mind on the body more generally, beyond the muscular system, and therefore refers to the "ideo-dynamic" response and coined the term "psycho-physiology" to refer to the study of the common mind./body interactions.
In later works, Braid reserves the term "hypnotism" for cases in which the subject enters a sleep-like amnesia state. In other cases, he spoke of the principle of "mono-ideodinamic" to emphasize that the technique of eye-fixation induction works by narrowing the subject's attention to a single idea or training of thought ("monoideism"), which reinforces its consequent effect. The "dominant idea" on the subject's body through the ideo-dynamic principle.
Hysteria vs. suggestions
For decades Braid's work has become more influential abroad than in his own country, except for a handful of followers, especially Dr. John Milne Bramwell. Leading Neurologist Dr. George Miller Beard brought Braid's theory to America. Meanwhile, his works were translated into German by William Thierry Preyer, Professor of Physiology at the University of Jena. Psychiatrist Albert Moll then continued his German research, published Hypnotism in 1889. France became the focal point for studying Braid's ideas after the famous neurologist Dr. ÃÆ' â € ° tienne EugÃÆ'¨ne Azam translated Braid's final text ( On Hypnotism , 1860) into French Braid research and presented to the French Academy of Sciences. At Azam's request, Paul Broca, and others, the French Academy of Sciences, who had investigated Mesmerism in 1784, examined Braid's writing shortly after his death.
Azam's enthusiasm for hypnotism affected Ambroise-Auguste Lià © chault, a state doctor. Hippolyte Bernheim invented the highly acclaimed Lià ©  © beault hypnotherapy clinic and later became an influential hypnotist. The study of hypnotism then revolves around the heated debate between Bernheim and Jean-Martin Charcot, two of the most influential figures in 19th century hypnotism.
Charcot operates a clinic at the PitiÃÆ'Â © -SalpÃÆ'ªtriÃÆ'¨re Hospital (thus, known as the "School of Paris" or "School SalpÃÆ'ªtriÃÆ'¨re"), while Bernheim has a clinic at Nancy (known as "Nancy School"). Charcot, influenced more by the Mesmerists, argues that hypnotism is an abnormal state of nerve function found only in certain hysterical women. He claims that it is manifested in a series of physical reactions that can be divided into different stages. Bernheim argues that anyone can be hypnotized, that it is an extension of the normal psychological function, and that the result is due to suggestions. After several decades of debate, Bernheim's view dominated. Charcot's theory is now just a historical curiosity.
Pierre Janet
Pierre Janet (1859-1947) reported research on the subject of hypnosis in 1882. Charcot later appointed him as director of the psychological laboratory at SalpÃÆ'ªtriÃÆ'¨re in 1889, after Janet completed his PhD, which deals with psychological automatism. In 1898, Janet was appointed professor of psychology at the Sorbonne, and in 1902 he became chair of experimental and comparative psychology at CollÃÆ'¨ge de France. Janet reconciled her element of view with the Bernheim people and her followers, developing her own hypnosis psychotherapy based on the concept of psychological dissociation, which, by the turn of the century, equaled Freud's attempt to provide a more comprehensive theory of psychotherapy.
Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), founder of psychoanalysis, studied hypnotism at the Paris School and briefly visited the Nancy School.
Initially, Freud was an enthusiastic supporter of hypnotherapy. He "initially hypnotized patients and pressed their foreheads to help them concentrate while trying to recover (suppressed) depressed memory", and he immediately began to emphasize hypnotic regression and ab reaction (catharsis) as a method of therapy. He wrote a favorable encyclopedia article on hypnotism, translated one of Bernheim's works into German, and published a series of influential case studies with his colleague Joseph Breuer entitled The Study of Hysteria (1895). This becomes the founding text of the next tradition known as "hypno-analysis" or "hypnotherapy regression".
However, Freud gradually abandoned hypnotism for the sake of psychoanalysis, emphasizing free association and unconscious interpretation. Fighting at the expense of time required by psychoanalysis, Freud then suggested that it might be combined with hypnotic suggestion to speed up treatment outcomes, but this might undermine the result: "It is also possible that the application of our Therapy to the numbers will force us to flow through gold pure analysis with copper with direct suggestion [hypnosis]. "
Only a handful of Freud's followers, however, are sufficiently qualified in hypnosis to attempt synthesis. Their work has limited influence on the hypnotherapy approach now known as "hypnotic regression", "hypnotic development", and "hypnoanalysis".
ÃÆ' â € ° mile CouÃÆ'Â ©/span>
ÃÆ' â € ° mile CouÃÆ'Â © (1857-1926) helped Ambroise-Auguste LiÃÆ'Â © beault for about two years in Nancy. After practicing for several months using "hypnosis" from LiÃÆ'Â © Beault and School Nancy Bernheim, he abandoned their approach altogether. Later, CouÃÆ' Â © developed a new approach (c.1901) based on Braid's "hypnotism", direct hypnotic suggestions, and ego reinforcement that eventually became known as La mÃÆ' © thode CouÃÆ'Â © . According to Charles Baudouin, CouÃÆ'Â © founded what is known as the New Nancy School, a loose collaboration of the practitioners who teach and promote his views. The CouÃÆ'Â © method does not emphasize "sleep" or deep relaxation, but instead focuses on suggestions that involve a series of specific suggestion tests. Although CouÃÆ' Â © argues that he is no longer using hypnosis, followers like Charles Baudouin view his approach as a form of mild self-hypnosis. The CouÃÆ'Â © method becomes a famous self-help and psychotherapy technique, which contrasts with psychoanalysis and precedes self-hypnosis and cognitive therapy.
Clark L. Hull
The next major development comes from behavioral psychology in American university research. Clark L. Hull (1884-1952), a prominent American psychologist, published the first major compilation of laboratory studies on hypnosis, Hypnosis & amp; Suggestibility (1933), in which he proved that hypnosis and sleep have nothing in common. Hull published many quantitative findings from hypnosis and experimental suggestions and encouraged research by mainstream psychologists. Hull's behavioral psychology interpretation of hypnosis, emphasizing conditioned reflexes, rivals Freudian psycho-dynamic interpretations that emphasize unconscious transference.
Dave Elman
Although Dave Elman (1900-1967) was a famous radio host, comedian, and songwriter, he also made a name as a hypnotist. He led many courses for doctors, and in 1964 wrote the book Findings in Hypnosis , then titled Hypnotherapy (published by Westwood Publishing). Perhaps the most famous aspect of the Elman heritage is its induction method, which was originally created for speed of work and then adapted for the use of medical professionals.
Milton Erickson
Milton Erickson (1901-1980) was one of the most influential postwar war hypnotherapists. He wrote several books and journal articles about it. During the 1960s, Erickson popularized a new branch of hypnotherapy, known as Ericksonian therapy, characterized primarily by indirect suggestions, "metaphors" (actually analogies), confusion techniques, and double bonds in place of formal hypnosis induction. However, the distinction between the Erickson method and traditional hypnotism led to contemporaries like AndrÃÆ'Â © Weitzenhoffer questioning whether he was practicing "hypnosis" altogether, and his approach was questionable.
Erickson did not hesitate in presenting the suggested effect as "hypnosis", whether the subject was in a hypnotic state or not. In fact, he does not hesitate in passing on the behavior that turns hypnosis as hypnosis.
Cognitive-behavioral
In the second half of the 20th century, two factors contributed to the development of a cognitive-behavioral approach to hypnosis:
- Cognitive and behavioral theories about the nature of hypnosis (influenced by Sarbin and Barber's theory) are becoming increasingly influential.
- The practice of hypnotherapy therapy and various forms of cognitive behavioral therapy overlap and affect each other.
Although cognitive-behavioral hypnotic theory must be distinguished from the cognitive-behavioral approach to hypnotherapy, they share the same concepts, terminology, and assumptions and have been integrated by influential researchers and physicians such as Irving Kirsch, Steven Jay Lynn, and others.
At the beginning of cognitive behavioral therapy during the 1950s, hypnosis was used by early behavioral therapists such as Joseph Wolpe and also by early cognitive therapists such as Albert Ellis. Barber, Spanos, and Chaves introduced the term "cognitive-behavior" to describe their "nonstate" hypnosis theory in Hypnosis, imagination, and human potential. However, Clark L. Hull has introduced behavioral psychology as far back as 1933, which in turn was preceded by Ivan Pavlov. Indeed, the early theory and practice of hypnotism, even the Braid, resembles a cognitive-behavioral orientation in some respects.
Apps
There are many applications for hypnosis in various areas of interest, including medical/psychotherapy use, military use, self-improvement, and entertainment. The American Medical Association does not currently have an official stance on the use of medical hypnosis. However, a study published in 1958 by the Board of Mental Health of the American Medical Association documented the efficacy of hypnosis in a clinical setting.
Hypnosis has been used as an additional approach to cognitive behavioral therapy since early 1949. Hypnosis is defined in relation to classical conditioning; where the therapist's words are stimulation and hypnosis will be a conditioned response. Some traditional cognitive behavioral therapy methods are based on classical conditioning. This includes stimulating the state of relaxation and introducing the dreaded stimuli. One way to induce a relaxed state is through hypnosis.
Hypnotism has also been used in forensics, sports, education, physical therapy, and rehabilitation. Hypnotism has also been used by artists for creative purposes, especially the surreal circle of AndrÃÆ'Â © Breton who uses hypnosis, automated writing, and sketches for creative purposes. Hypnotic methods have been used to re-experience drug status and mystical experiences. Popular self-hypnosis is used to quit smoking, reduce stress and anxiety, increase weight loss, and lead to sleep hypnosis. The stage of hypnosis can persuade people to perform unusual public achievements.
Some have drawn analogies between certain aspects of hypnotism and areas such as crowd psychology, religious hysteria, and trance rituals in the culture of the empire.
Hypnotherapy
Hypnotherapy is the use of hypnosis in psychotherapy. These are used by licensed physicians, psychologists, and others. Physicians and psychologists can use hypnosis to treat depression, anxiety, eating disorders, sleep disorders, compulsive gambling, and posttraumatic stress, while certified non-doctoral hypnotherapists or psychologists often treat smoking and weight management.
Hypnotherapy is a helpful addition to having an additive effect when treating psychological disorders, such as these, along with scientifically proven cognitive therapy. Hypnotherapy should not be used to improve or refresh memory because hypnosis results in memory hardening, which increases trust in false memories.
Initial research has expressed short hypnotic interventions as a useful tool for managing painful HIV-DSPs because of their useful history in pain management, long-term effectiveness of short interventions, the ability to teach self-hypnosis to patients, the cost-effectiveness of interventions, and the benefit of using interventions as it is compared to the use of pharmaceutical drugs.
Modern hypnotherapy has been used, with various successes, in various forms, such as:
In a January 2001 article in Psychology Today, Harvard psychologist Deirdre Barrett wrote:
Trans hypnosis is not therapeutic in itself, but specific advice and images given to clients in trans can greatly alter their behavior. As they practice the new ways they want to think and feel, they lay the foundation for a change in their future actions...
Barrett explains that these specific ways are operationalized for the change of habit and amelioration of phobias. In his 1998 case study of hypnotherapy, he reviewed clinical research on hypnosis with dissociative disorders, quit smoking, and insomnia, and described the successful treatment of these complaints.
In a July 2001 article for Scientific American "Truth and Hype of Hypnosis," Michael Nash wrote that, "Using hypnosis, scientists have temporarily created hallucinations, compulsions, some types of memory loss, memories, and delusions in the laboratory so that this phenomenon can be learned in a controlled environment. "
Irritated bowel syndrome
Hypnotherapy has been studied for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. Hypnosis for IBS has received moderate support in the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence guidelines published for UK health services. It has been used as an aid or an alternative to chemical anesthesia, and has been studied as a way to soothe skin ailments.
Pain management
Numerous studies show that hypnosis can reduce the pain experienced during debridement of burns, bone marrow aspiration, and labor. The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis found that hypnosis relieves 75% of the 933 subjects who participated in 27 different trials.
Hypnosis is effective in relieving pain from and overcoming cancer and other chronic conditions. Nausea and other symptoms associated with incurable diseases can also be managed with hypnosis. Some practitioners claim hypnosis may help boost the immune system of cancer patients. However, according to the American Cancer Society, "the available scientific evidence does not support the idea that hypnosis can affect the development or development of cancer."
Hypnosis has been used as a painkiller technique during dental operations and associated pain management regimens as well. Researchers such as Jerjes and his team have reported that hypnosis can help even patients with acute or severe acute pain. In addition, Meyerson and Uziel have suggested that hypnotic methods have been found to be very useful for reducing anxiety in patients suffering from severe dental phobias.
For some psychologists who uphold the theory of a changed state of hypnosis, pain relief in response to hypnosis is said to be the result of a brain dual-processing function. This effect is obtained either through a process of selective attention or dissociation, in which both theories involve the presence of activity in the receptive regions of brain pain, and the difference in the processing of stimulation by hypnotized subjects.
The American Psychological Association published a study comparing the effects of hypnosis, ordinary suggestions, and placebo in relieving pain. The study found that highly-recommended individuals experienced greater pain reduction than hypnosis compared with placebo, while less recommended subjects did not experience a reduction in pain than hypnosis when compared with placebo. The usual non-hypnotic suggestion also causes pain reduction compared to placebo, but is able to reduce the pain on the wider subject (both high and low inferences) than hypnosis. The results showed that it was mainly the subject's response to suggestions, whether in the context of hypnosis or not, it was a major determinant of causing pain reduction.
Other medical and psychotherapy uses
Treating skin diseases with hypnosis (hypnodermatology) has performed well in treating warts, psoriasis, and atopic dermatitis.
The success rate for customary control varies. A meta study that investigated hypnosis as a stop smoking tool found it had a success rate of 20 to 30 percent, while a 2007 study of hospitalized patients for heart and lung disease found that smokers who use hypnosis to quit smoking doubled their chances of success.
Hypnosis may be useful as an adjunctive therapy to lose weight. A 1996 meta-analysis analysis that studied hypnosis combined with cognitive behavioral therapy found that people who used both treatments lost more weight than people who only used cognitive behavioral therapy. The procedure of virtual hull bands mixes hypnosis with hypnopedia. Hypnosis instructs the stomach to be smaller than it really is, and hypnopathy reinforces digestive habits. A 2016 pilot study found that there was no significant difference in effectiveness between VGB hypnotherapy and relaxation hypnotherapy.
Controversy surrounding the use of hypnotherapy to retrieve memories, especially those originating from childhood or (should) past lives. The American Medical Association and the American Psychological Association are wary of memory recovery therapy in childhood alleged trauma cases, which state that "it is impossible, without corroboration, to distinguish the true memory from the false." The regression of past lives, meanwhile, is often seen with skepticism.
Psychiatric nurses in most medical facilities are allowed to provide hypnosis to patients to relieve symptoms such as anxiety, arousal, negative behavior, uncontrollable behavior, and to increase self-esteem and self-confidence. This is permitted only when they have been thoroughly trained about their clinical side effects and while under supervision while managing it.
Military
A 1966 document declassified in 1966 obtained by the US Information Freedom Information archive shows that hypnosis is investigated for military applications. A full paper explores the potential for operational use. The overall conclusion of this study is that there is no evidence that hypnosis can be used for military applications, and there is no clear evidence whether "hypnosis" is a phenomenon that can be defined beyond the usual suggestions, motivations, and expectations of the subject. According to the document:
The use of hypnosis in intelligence will lead to certain technical problems not encountered in clinics or laboratories. To obtain compliance from a resistant source, for example, it is necessary to hypnotize sources under basically unfriendly circumstances. There is no good evidence, clinical or experimental, that this can be done.
Furthermore, the document states that:
It would be difficult to find a field of scientific interest that is overwhelmed by divided professional opinion and contradictory experimental evidence... Nothing can say whether hypnosis is a qualitatively unique state with some component of physiological and conditioned response or simply a form of advice induced by high motivation and a positive relationship between the hypnotist and the subject... TX Barber has produced "hypnotic deafness" and "hypnotic blindness", analgesia, and other responses seen in hypnosis - all without hypnotizing anyone... Orne has shown that lacking an identity can be motivated to emulate and surpass the superhuman physical achievements seen in hypnosis..
This study concludes:
It may be significant that in the long history of hypnosis, where potential applications for intelligence are always known, there are no reliable reports of their effective use by the intelligence services.
Research in hypnosis in military applications is further verified by the MKULTRA Project experiment, also performed by the CIA. According to Congressional testimony, the CIA experimented with utilizing LSD and hypnosis to control the mind. Many of these programs are conducted domestically and in participants who are not informed of the purpose of the study or that they will be given medication.
Self-hypnosis
Self-hypnosis occurs when a person is hypnotizing himself, usually involving the use of suggestion. This technique is often used to increase motivation to diet, quit smoking, or reduce stress. People who do self-hypnosis sometimes need help; some people use a device known as the mind machine to assist in the process, while others use hypnosis recording.
Self-hypnosis is claimed to help with stage fright, relaxation, and physical well-being.
Stage hypnosis
Stage hypnosis is a form of entertainment, traditionally used in clubs or theaters before the audience. Because of the stage performance of hypnosis, many people believe that hypnosis is a form of mind control. The stage hypnotists usually attempt to hypnotize the entire audience and then select the "under" individual to perform on stage and perform embarrassing acts while the audience watches. However, the effects of stage hypnosis may be due to a combination of psychological factors, participant selection, sugestibility, physical manipulation, stagecraft, and deception. The desire to be the center of attention, has reason to violate their own fear suppressors, and the pressure to please is convincing the subject to "play together". Books by stage hypnotists sometimes explicitly describe the use of fraud in their actions; for example, Ormond McGill The New Encyclopedia of Stage Hypnosis describes all the actions of "false hypnosis" that depend on the use of a personal whisper throughout.
Music hypnosis
The idea of ​​music as hypnosis developed from the work of Franz Mesmer. Instruments such as piano, violin, harp and, especially, arcano glass are often featured in Mesmer treatments; and is thought to contribute to Mesmer's success.
Music hypnosis becomes an important part in the development of 'physiological psychology' which considers the state of hypnosis as an 'automatic' phenomenon associated with physical reflexes. In their experiments with sound hypnosis, Jean-Martin Charcot used gongs and tuning forks, and Ivan Pavlov used bells. The purpose behind their experiment is to prove that the physiological response to sound can be automatic, bypassing the conscious mind.
Music as Satan's brainwashing
In the 1980s and 1990s, moral panic occurred in the US for fear of Satan's ritual abuse. As part of this, certain books such as The Devil's Disciples state that some bands, especially in the heavy metal music genre, brainwash American teenagers with subliminal messages to lure them into devil worship, sexual immorality, murder, and especially suicide. The use of demonic and rhetorical iconography in this genre provokes parents and society, and also advocates masculine power for viewers, especially in adolescents who are ambivalent with their identities. Opposition to heavy metal in the case of demonic brainwashing is evidence related to the theory of automatic response to musical hypnotism.
Crime
Various people have been suspected or convicted of crimes related to hypnosis, including robbery and sexual harassment.
In 2011, a Russian "evil hypnotist" allegedly deceived customers in a bank around Stavropol to give thousands of pounds of money. According to local police, he would approach them and get them to withdraw all the money from their bank account, which they then gave freely to the man. A similar incident was reported in London in 2014, where a video seems to show a robber hypnotizing shopkeeper before robbing him. The victim did nothing to stop the robber robbing his pocket and taking his money, just calling the thief when he was gone.
In 2013, 40-year-old amateur hypnotist Timothy Porter attempted to sexually abuse female clients who lost weight. He reports waking up from a trance and finds him behind him with his pants down, telling her to touch herself. She was then summoned to court and included on the list of sex offenders. In 2015, Gary Naraido, then aged 52, was sentenced to 10 years in prison for several allegations of sexual abuse related to hypnosis. In addition to the main charge by a 22-year-old woman who was sexually harassed at a hotel under the guise of a free therapy session, she also claimed to have sexually harassed a 14-year-old girl.
Country versus non-country state
The central theoretical disagreement about hypnosis is known as the "state versus non-state" debate. When Braid introduces the concept of hypnotism, he puts aside the nature of the "state," sometimes describing it as a special neurological state such as sleep similar to animal hibernation or yoga meditation, while later emphasizing that hypnotism includes a number of stages or circumstances that are an extension of ordinary psychological and physiological processes. Overall, Braid seems to have moved from a "special state" understanding more than hypnotism toward a more complex "nonstate" orientation.
State theorists interpret the effects of hypnosis as a result especially on certain psychological or physiological states, abnormal, and uniform of some description, often referred to as "hypnotic trance" or "altered states of consciousness". Nonstate theorists reject the idea of ​​hypnosis and interpret the effects of hypnotism as a result of a combination of specific task forces derived from normal cognitive, behavioral, and social psychology, such as social role perception and favorable motivation (Sarbin), active. imagination and positive cognitive set (Barber), expectation response (Kirsch), and active use of the task-specific subjective strategy (Spanos). Personality psychologist Robert White is often cited as one of the first non-moderate definitions of hypnosis in a 1941 article:
The behavior of hypnosis is meaningful, purpose-directed struggling, the most common goal is to behave like a hypnotized person as this continues to be defined by the operator and understood by the client.
Simply stated, it is often claimed that, while the older "special state" interpretation emphasizes the difference between hypnosis and ordinary psychological processes, "nonstate" interpretations emphasize their similarities.
Comparisons between hypnotized and non-hypnotized subjects show that, if "hypnotic trance" exists, it accounts for only a fraction of the effects associated with hypnotic suggestion, which can be largely replicated without hypnotic induction.
Hyper-suggestibility
Braids can be considered to imply, in later writings, that hypnosis is largely an increasingly sugestibility state due to focused hopes and concerns. In particular, Hippolyte Bernheim is known as a major proponent of hypnotic "suggestion theory", at one point that would suggest that there is no hypnotic state, only high sugestibility. There is a general consensus that increasing suggestibility is an important characteristic of hypnosis. In 1933, Clark L. Hull wrote:
If the subject after following the hypnotic procedure does not show a noticeable improvement in vulnerability to any suggestions, it seems pointless to call him hypnotized, regardless of how quickly and readily he or she can respond to closing-close suggestions and other shallow sleeping behaviors.
Conditioned inhibition
Ivan Pavlov states that hypnotic suggestion provides the best example of the conditioned reflex response in humans; namely, that responses to suggestions are learned associations that are triggered by the words used:
Speech, since all previous life of the adult, is connected with all internal and external stimuli that can reach the cortex, signify everything and replace it all, and therefore can summon all reactions of the organism normally determined by the actual stimuli themselves. Therefore, we can regard "suggestion" as the simplest form of reflex characteristic in man.
He also believes that hypnosis is a "partial sleep", which means that inhibition of cortical function can be encouraged to spread throughout the brain region. He observed that different levels of hypnosis did not differ significantly physiologically from waking and hypnosis depending on significant changes in environmental stimuli. Pavlov also suggested that the mechanism of the lower brain stem is involved in hypnotic conditioning.
Pavlov's ideas were combined with his rivals Vladimir Bekhterev and became the basis of hypnotic psychotherapy in the Soviet Union, as documented in the writings of his followers K.I. Platonov. Soviet hypnotism then influenced Western-oriented hypnotherapist writings such as Andrew Salter.
Neuropsychology
Changes in brain activity have been found in some highly responsive hypnotic subject studies. These changes vary depending on the type of advice provided. The state of light to medium hypnosis, in which the body undergoes physical and mental relaxation, is associated with the pattern of most alpha waves. However, what these results show is not clear. They may indicate that suggestions actually result in a change in perception or experience that is not just the result of the imagination. However, under normal circumstances without hypnosis, brain regions associated with motion detection are activated both when movement is seen and when movement is envisaged, without change in perception or subject experience. Therefore, this may indicate that the highly suggested hypnotic subject only activates to the area of ​​the brain used in the imagination, without a noticeable change of perception. However, it is too early to claim that hypnosis and meditation are mediated by similar brain and neural mechanisms.
Other studies have shown that color hallucinations suggestions are given to the subject in color-activated color processing areas of the occipital cortex. A 2004 study review that examined the work of EEG laboratories in this area concluded:
Hypnosis is not a state of unity and therefore should exhibit different EEG activity patterns depending on the task being experienced. In our literature evaluation, theta enhancement is observed during hypnosis when there is task performance or concentration hypnosis, but not when highly hypnotically passive individuals are relaxed, somewhat sleepy and/or more diffused in their attention.
Studies have shown a hypnotic relationship with t-frequency activity
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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