Clinical Psychology is the integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and eliminating psychological-based distress or dysfunction and for promoting subjective wellbeing and personal development. The center for practice is psychological assessment, clinical formulation, and psychotherapy, although clinical psychologists are also involved in research, teaching, consulting, forensic testimony, and program and administration development. In many countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession.
The field is generally thought to have started in 1896 with the opening of the first psychological clinic at the University of Pennsylvania by Lightner Witmer. In the first half of the 20th century, clinical psychology focused on psychological assessment, with little attention paid to treatment. This changed after 1940 when World War II resulted in the need for a large increase in the number of trained doctors. Since then, three major educational models have been developed in the US - Ph.D. Model of Clinical Science (highly focused on research), Ph.D. models of science-practitioners (integrating research and practice), and Psy.D. practitioner-scholar model (focusing on clinical practice). In the UK, Doctor of Clinical Psychology is among the last two models, while in most of mainland Europe the training is at the master's level and especially psychotherapy. Clinical psychologists are experts in providing psychotherapy, and generally train in four major theoretical orientations - psychodynamic, humanistic, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), and family systems or therapies.
Video Clinical psychology
Histori
The earliest recorded approach to assessing and treating mental stress is a combination of a religious, magical and/or medical perspective. Early examples of such doctors include PataÃÆ' Â ± jali, Padmasambhava, Rhazes, Avicenna, and Rumi. At the beginning of the 19th century, an approach to studying mental and behavioral conditions using phrenology, the study of personality by examining the shape of the skull. Other popular treatments at the time included the study of facial shape (physiognomy) and Mesmer's treatment for mental states using magnetism (mesmerism). Spiritualism and Phineas Quimby "mental healing" are also popular.
While the scientific community has finally rejected all of these methods for treating mental illness, academic psychologists are also unconcerned with serious forms of mental illness. Studies of mental illness have been done in the field of psychiatry and neurology that developed in the asylum movement. It was not until the end of the 19th century, around the time when Sigmund Freud first developed "talking drugs" in Vienna, that the first scientific application of clinical psychology began.
Initial clinical psychology
In the second half of the 1800s, scientific studies of psychology were well established in university laboratories. Although there are several scattered voices calling for applied psychology, the public sphere looks down on this idea and insists on "pure" science as the only respectable practice. This changed when Lightner Witmer (1867-1956), a past student of Wundt and head of the psychology department at the University of Pennsylvania, agreed to treat a boy who had problems with spelling. His successful treatment soon led to the opening of Witmer from Penn's first psychological clinic in 1896, dedicated to helping children with learning disabilities. Ten years later in 1907, Witmer would find the first journal of this new field, The Psychological Clinic, where he coined the term "clinical psychology," defined as "the study of individuals, by observation or experimentation, with a view to promoting change ". The field was slow to follow Witmer's example, but in 1914, there were 26 similar clinics in the US.
Even when clinical psychology develops, working with serious mental stress problems remains the domain of psychiatrists and neurologists. However, clinical psychologists continue to make inroads into this area because of their increased skills on psychological assessment. The reputation of the psychologist as an assessment expert was compressed during World War I with the development of two intelligence tests, Army Alpha and Army Beta (testing both verbal and nonverbal skills, respectively -mases), which can be used with large recruiting groups. Due largely to the success of these tests, the assessment is to become the core discipline of clinical psychology over the next quarter century, when other wars will push the field into treatment.
Initial professional organization
The field began to be organized under the name "clinical psychology" in 1917 with the founding of the American Association of Clinical Psychology. This only lasted until 1919, after which the American Psychological Association (founded by G. Stanley Hall in 1892) developed a section on Clinical Psychology, which offered certification until 1927. Growth in the field was slow for the next few years when various psychologically unrelated organizations came together as the American Association of Applied Psychology in 1930, which will serve as the main forum for psychologists until after World War II when APA was reorganized. In 1945, APA created what is now called the 12th Division, the clinical psychology division, which remains a leading organization in the field. Communities and psychological associations in other English-speaking countries developed similar divisions, including in the UK, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.
World War II and maintenance integration
When World War II broke out, the military once again called on clinical psychologists. As soldiers begin to return from battle, psychologists begin to notice the symptoms of psychological trauma labeled "shell shock" (eventually referred to as post-traumatic stress disorder) best addressed as soon as possible. Because doctors (including psychiatrists) are too excessive in treating body injuries, psychologists are called in to help treat this condition. At the same time, female psychologists (excluded from the war effort) formed the National Council of Women's Psychologists with the aim of helping people face war pressure and advising young mothers about parenting. After the war, the Veterans Administration in the US made substantial investments to prepare a program to train clinical level doctoral psychologists to help treat thousands of veterans in need of care. As a result, the US changed from not having a formal university program in clinical psychology in 1946 to more than half of all Ph.D. degrees in psychology in 1950 given in clinical psychology.
World War II helped bring dramatic changes to clinical psychology, not only in America but also internationally. Graduate education in psychology began to add psychotherapy to the focus of science and research based on a 1947 scientist-model practitioner, known today as Boulder Model, for Ph.D. program in clinical psychology. Clinical psychology in Britain developed as in the US after World War II, particularly in the context of the National Health Service with qualifications, standards, and salaries administered by the British Psychological Society.
Development of Doctor of Psychology
In the 1960s, psychotherapy has been embedded in clinical psychology, but for many Ph.D. The educational model does not offer the necessary training for those interested in practice rather than research. There is a growing argument that says the field of psychology in the US has grown to a level that ensures explicit training in clinical practice. The concept of a practice-oriented degree was debated in 1965 and obtained approval for a pilot program at the University of Illinois beginning in 1968. Several other similar programs were institutionalized immediately, and in 1973, at the Vail Conference on Professional Training in Psychology, psychology models of practitioner psychology - or The Vail Model - which results in a Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.) degree is recognized. Although the training will continue to incorporate research skills and scientific understanding of psychology, the goal is to produce highly trained professionals, similar to programs in medicine, dentistry, and law. The first program explicitly based on Psy.D. model was instituted at Rutgers University. Today, about half of all American graduate students in clinical psychology are enrolled in Psy.D. program.
Changing profession
Since the 1970s, clinical psychology has continued to develop into a strong profession and academic field of study. Although the exact number of clinical psychologists' practices is unknown, it is estimated that between 1974 and 1990, the number in the US increased from 20,000 to 63,000. Clinical psychologists continue to be experts in assessment and psychotherapy while extending their focus to tackling gerontology, sports, and criminal justice systems to name a few. One of the key areas is the health psychology, the fastest growing work arrangement for clinical psychologists in the last decade. Other major changes include the impact of managed care on mental health care; increased awareness of the importance of knowledge related to multicultural and diverse populations; and the privileges that appear to prescribe psychotropic drugs.
Maps Clinical psychology
Professional Practice
Clinical psychologists are involved in various activities. Some focus only on research in the assessment, treatment, or causes of mental illness and related conditions. Some teach, either in medical school or in hospital, or in academic departments (for example, psychology departments) in an institution of higher education. The majority of clinical psychologists are involved in some form of clinical practice, with professional services including psychological assessment, provision of psychotherapy, development and administration of clinical, and forensic programs (eg, providing expert testimony in legal proceedings.
In clinical practice, clinical psychologists can work with individuals, partners, families, or groups in a variety of settings, including personal practice, hospitals, mental health organizations, schools, businesses, and nonprofits. Clinical psychologists who provide clinical services may also choose to specialize. Some specializations are codified and authorized by regulatory bodies in the country of practice. In the United States the specialization is commented on by the American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP).
Training and certification to practice
Clinical psychologists study the generalist program in psychology plus graduate training and/or clinical placement and supervision. Duration of training is different across the globe, from four years plus post-graduate supervised practice to a three to six year doctorate that incorporates clinical placement. In the US, about half of all graduate students of clinical psychology are being trained in Ph.D. programs that emphasize research - with the other half in Psy.D. programs, which focus more on practice (similar to professional degrees for medicine and law). Both models are accredited by the American Psychological Association and many other English-speaking psychology societies. A small number of schools offer accredited programs in clinical psychology that produce a Master's degree, which typically takes two to three years post-graduate.
In the UK, clinical psychologists undertake the Doctor of Clinical Psychology (D.Clin.Psych.), Who is a practitioner doctor with clinical and research components. This is a three-year, full-time salary program sponsored by the National Health Service (NHS) and is based at the university and the NHS. Entry into the program is highly competitive, and requires at least a three-year undergraduate degree in psychology plus some form of experience, usually either in the NHS as an Assistant Psychologist or in academia as Research Assistant. It is not uncommon for applicants to register several times before being accepted into a training course because only about one fifth of applicants are accepted each year. This doctoral degree in clinical psychology is accredited by the British Psychological Society and the Health Professions Council (HPC). HPC is a legal regulator for practitioner psychologists in the UK. Those who successfully complete a doctorate in clinical psychology are eligible to apply with HPC as a clinical psychologist.
The practice of clinical psychology requires licensing in the United States, Canada, Britain, and many other countries. Although each US state is somewhat different in terms of terms and licenses, there are three common elements:
- Graduation from an accredited school with an appropriate degree
- Completion of supervised clinical or supervised experience
- Pass a written exam and, in some states, an oral exam
All US states and Canada provincial licensing boards are members of the Association of State and Provincial Psychology Councils (ASPPB) who create and maintain the Exam for Professional Practice in Psychology (EPPP). Many countries require checks other than EPPP, such as the examination of jurisprudence (ie, mental health law) and/or oral examinations. Most states also require a number of continuing education credits annually to renew licenses, which can be obtained through various means, such as taking an audited class and attending an approved workshop. Clinical psychologists require the license of a psychologist to practice, even though the license may be obtained with a master's degree, such as Marriage and Family Therapist (MFT), Licensed Professional Advisor (LPC), and Licensed Licensed Psychology (LPA).
In the US enrollment as a clinical psychologist with the Board of Health Professions (HPC) is required. HPC is a legal regulator for practitioner psychologists in the UK. In the UK, the following titles are limited by the laws of "registered psychologists" and "practitioner psychologists"; In addition, the specialist "clinical psychologist" degree is also limited by law.
Assessment
The area of ​​expertise that is important to many clinical psychologists is psychological assessment, and there are indications that as many as 91% of psychologists are involved in this core clinical practice. Such an evaluation is usually done in the service to gain insight and establish hypotheses about psychological or behavioral issues. As such, the results of those assessments are typically used to make general impressions (not diagnoses) in the service to inform maintenance planning. Methods include formal testing steps, interviews, review of past records, clinical observations, and physical examinations.
Measurement domain
There are hundreds of various assessment tools, although few are proven to have high validity (ie, actual testing measures what it claims to be measured) and reliability (ie, consistency). These steps generally fall into one of several categories, including the following:
- Intelligence & amp; achievement tests - These tests are designed to measure certain specific cognitive functions (often referred to as IQs) as compared to norming groups. These tests, such as WISC-IV, try to measure traits such as general knowledge, verbal skills, memory, attention span, logical reasoning, and visual/spatial perception. Several tests have been shown to accurately predict certain types of performance, especially scholastic.
- Personality tests - Personality tests aim to describe patterns of behavior, thoughts, and feelings. They generally fall into two categories: objective and projective. Objective measurements, such as the MMPI, are based on restricted answers - such as yes/no, true/false, or ranking scales - allowing computation of scores that can be compared against the normative group. Projective tests, such as Rorschach's soot test, allow open answers, often based on ambiguous stimuli, may reveal unconscious psychological dynamics.
- Neuropsychological tests - Neuropsychological tests consist of specially designed tasks used to measure the known psychological functions associated with a particular structure or brain pathway. They are usually used to assess the decline after an injury or disease known to affect neurocognitive function, or when used in the study, to distinguish neuropsychological abilities in the experimental group.
- Clinical observations - Clinical psychologists are also trained to collect data by observing behavior. Clinical interviews are an important part of the assessment, even when using other formal tools, which can use structured or unstructured formats. This kind of assessment looks at certain areas, such as general appearance and behavior, mood and influence, perception, understanding, orientation, insight, memory, and communication content. One example of psychiatry from formal interviews is the examination of mental status, which is often used in psychiatry as a screening tool for treatment or further testing.
Diagnostic views
After the assessment, clinical psychologists can give a diagnostic impression. Many countries use the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Health Problems (ICD-10) while the US most frequently uses the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders . Both are nosocological systems that largely assume categorical disorders are diagnosed through the application of a set of criteria including symptoms and signs.
Several new models are being discussed, including "dimensional models" based on empirically-validated human-empirical differences models (such as the five personality models) and the "psychosocial model", which will change, the intersubjective state becomes larger. Proponents of this model claim that they will offer greater diagnostic flexibility and clinical utility irrespective of the medical concept of the disease. However, they also recognize that this model is not yet strong enough to be widely used, and should continue to be developed.
Clinical psychologists are not likely to diagnose, but prefer to use formulation - individual map difficulties faced by patients or clients, including predisposing, sedimentation and preservation factors.
Mechanical predictions v. mechanical
Clinical assessment can be characterized as a prediction problem in which the purpose of assessment is to make inferences (predictions) about past, present, or future behavior. For example, many therapeutic decisions are made on the basis of what the doctor hopes will help patients make therapeutic benefits. Once the observations are collected (for example, psychological test results, diagnostic impressions, clinical history, X-rays, etc.), there are two exclusive ways to combine these sources of information to reach a decision, diagnosis, or prediction. One way is to combine the data in algorithmic, or "mechanical" mode. Mechanical prediction methods are just a combination of data modes to arrive at a behavioral decision/prediction (eg, treatment response). Mechanical predictions do not preclude all types of data to be combined; it can combine clinical judgment, correctly encoded, in the algorithm. The decisive characteristic is, once the data are combined, the mechanical approach will make a 100% prediction reliable. That is, it will make an exact prediction for exactly the same data every time. Clinical predictions, on the other hand, do not guarantee this, because it depends on the decision-making process of the physician making the judgments, their current state of mind, and the knowledge base.
What was then called the "statistical versus statistical prediction debate" was first described in detail in 1954 by Paul Meehl, in which he explored the claim that a method of combining data mechanically (formally, algorithmically) could outperform clinically (eg, subjective, informal, " in the doctor's head ") when the combination is used to achieve a behavioral prediction. Meehl concluded that mechanical mode combinations performed well or better than clinical mode. Subsequent meta-analysis of studies directly comparing mechanical and clinical predictions has given birth to the 1954 Meehl conclusion. A 2009 survey of clinical psychologists' practices found that physicians almost exclusively used their clinical judgment to make behavioral predictions for their patients, including diagnosis and prognosis.
Interventions
Psychotherapy involves a formal relationship between professionals and clients - usually individuals, couples, families, or small groups - who use a series of procedures intended to form therapeutic alliances, explore the nature of psychological problems, and encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving.
Doctors have a variety of individual interventions to draw from, often guided by their training - for example, a cognitive behavioral therapy physician (CBT) may use worksheets to record a sad cognition, a psychoanalyst may encourage free association, while psychologists are trained in Gestalt Techniques may focus on direct interaction between the client and the therapist. Clinical psychologists generally seek to base their work on research evidence and results studies as well as on trained clinical judgments. Although there are literally dozens of recognized therapeutic orientations, their differences can often be categorized into two dimensions: bright outlook vs. action and in-session vs. out-sessions.
- Insights - the emphasis is to gain a greater understanding of the motivations underlying one's thoughts and feelings (eg psychodynamic therapy)
- Action - focus is making changes in how people think and act (eg solution focused therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy)
- In the intervention sessions on the here-and-now interaction between client and therapist (eg humanistic therapy, Gestalt therapy)
- Exit session - most therapeutic work is meant to occur outside of the session (eg bibliotherapy, rational emotional behavior therapy)
The methods used are also different in terms of the population served as well as the context and nature of the problem. Therapy will look very different between, for example, a traumatized child, a depressed but highly functioning adult, a group of people recovering from substance dependence, and a state ward suffering from frightening delusions. Other elements that play an important role in the process of psychotherapy include the environment, culture, age, cognitive function, motivation, and duration (ie short or long-term therapy).
Four main schools
Many clinical psychologists are integrative or eclectic and draw from evidence bases in different therapeutic models in an integrative manner, rather than using a single specific model.
In the UK, clinical psychologists should demonstrate competence in at least two models of therapy, including CBT, to earn their doctorate. The Division of Clinical Psychology of English Psychology has been vocal about the necessity of following the evidence base rather than following a model of therapy.
In the US, application and intervention research is dominated in training and practice basically four schools of practice: psychodynamic, humanistic, cognitive behavior/behavior, and family systems or therapies.
Psychodynamics
The psychodynamic perspective evolved from the psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud. The main purpose of psychoanalysis is to create a subconscious awareness - to make the client aware of its own primal impulse (ie relating to sex and aggression) and the various defenses used to keep them in control. Important tools of the psychoanalytic process are the use of free association and client transference checks against therapists, defined as the tendency to take subconscious thoughts or emotions about significant people (eg parents) and "transfer" them to others. person. The main variations in Freudian psychoanalysis practiced today include self psychology, ego psychology, and object relations theory. This general orientation is now under the umbrella of psychodynamic psychology terms, with common themes including displacement and defense checks, appreciation of the power of the unconscious, and focus on how early development in childhood has shaped the psychological state of the client currently.
Humanistic
Humanistic psychology developed in the 1950s as a reaction to behaviorism and psychoanalysis, largely due to Carl Rogers's people-centered therapy (often referred to as Rogerian Therapy) and existential psychology developed by Viktor Frankl and Rollo May. Rogers believes that clients need only three things from a doctor to experience therapeutic improvement - suitability, unconditional positive consideration, and empathic understanding. Using phenomenology, intersubjectivity and first-person categories, the humanistic approach seeks to get a glimpse of the whole person and not just fragmented fragmented pieces of personality. This aspect of holism is related to another general purpose of humanistic practice in clinical psychology, which is to seek the integration of all people, also called self-actualization. From 1980, Hans-Werner Gessmann integrated the ideas of humanistic psychology into group psychotherapy as humanistic psychodrama . According to humanistic thinking, every individual has the potential and inbuilt resources that can help them build stronger personalities and self-concept. The mission of humanistic psychologists is to help individuals use these resources through therapeutic relationships.
Cognitive behavior and behavior
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is developed from a combination of cognitive therapy and rational emotional behavior therapy, both of which grow from cognitive psychology and behaviorism. CBT is based on the theory that how we think (cognition), how we feel (emotions), and how we act (behavior) related and interact together in a complex way. In this perspective, certain dysfunctional ways of interpreting and judging the world (often through schemes or confidence) can contribute to emotional stress or cause behavior problems. The object of many cognitive behavioral therapies is to discover and identify biased and dysfunctional ways of relating or reacting and through different methodologies to help clients overcome these things in ways that will lead to improved well-being. There are many techniques used, such as systematic desensitization, socratic questions, and storing cognition observation logs. Modified approaches that fall within the CBT category have also been developed, including dialectical behavioral therapy and cognitive-based cognition.
Behavioral therapy is a rich tradition. It is well researched with a strong evidence base. Its roots in behaviorism. In behavioral therapy, environmental events predict how we think and feel. Our behavior sets the conditions for the environment for feedback on it. Sometimes feedback leads to behaviors to improve-reinforcement and sometimes decreased-punishment behavior. Often behavioral therapists are called applied behavioral analysts or health behavior counselors. They have studied many areas of developmental defects to depression and anxiety disorders. In the field of mental health and addiction, a recent article looks at the APA list for established and promising practices and finds a large number of them based on the principles of operand and conditioning of respondents. Some assessment techniques have come from this approach including functional analysis (psychology), which has found a strong focus in the school system. In addition, several intervention programs have come from this tradition including community empowerment approaches to treat dependence, acceptance and commitment therapy, functional analytic psychotherapy, including dialectical behavioral therapy and behavioral activation. In addition, specific techniques such as contingency management and exposure therapy come from this tradition.
Family therapy or system
Family systems or therapies work with partners and families, and emphasize family relationships as an important factor in psychological health. The main focus tends to interpersonal dynamics, especially in terms of how changes in one person will affect the whole system. Therefore, therapy is performed with as many as possible significant "system" members. Objectives can include improving communication, building a healthy role, creating alternative narratives, and addressing problematic behaviors.
Other therapeutic perspectives
There are dozens of recognized schools or psychotherapy orientations - the list below shows some of the influential orientations not given above. Although they have some common techniques used by practitioners, they are generally better known for providing a theoretical framework and philosophy that guides a therapist in working with clients.
- Existential - Existential psychotherapy postulates that most people are free to choose who we are and how we interpret and interact with the world. It intends to help clients find deeper meaning in life and to accept responsibility for life. Thus, he discusses the basic issues of life, such as death, loneliness, and freedom. The therapist emphasizes the client's ability to become self-aware, free to make choices in the present, build personal identity and social relationships, create meaning, and overcome natural anxieties of life.
- Gestalt - Gestalt therapy was primarily founded by Fritz Perls in the 1950s. This therapy is probably best known for using techniques designed to improve self-awareness, the most famous of which may be "empty chair technique." Such techniques are intended to explore the rejection of "original contact", resolve internal conflicts, and help clients complete "unfinished business". Postmodern psychology says postmodern psychology that reality experiences are subjective constructs built on language, social context, and history, with no essential truth. Since "mental illness" and "mental health" are not recognized as objective and definable realities, postmodern psychologists actually see therapeutic goals as strictly built by clients and therapists. The forms of postmodern psychotherapy include narrative therapy, solution-focused therapy, and coherence therapy.
- Transpersonal - The transpersonal viewpoint places a stronger focus on the spiritual side of human experience. This is not a set of techniques, just like the willingness to help clients explore the spirituality and/or state of transcendent awareness. It also deals with helping clients reach their highest potential.
Integration
In the last few decades, there has been a growing movement to integrate therapeutic approaches, especially with increased understanding of cultural, gender, spiritual, and sexual orientation issues. Clinical psychologists begin to look at the various strengths and weaknesses of each orientation while also working with related fields, such as neuroscience, behavioral genetics, evolutionary biology, and psychopharmacology. The result is an increasingly growing eclectic practice, with psychologists studying the most efficacious systems and therapeutic methods with the goal of providing the best solution for any given problem.
Professional ethics
The field of clinical psychology in most countries is governed by a code of ethics. In the US, professional ethics is largely determined by the APA Code of Conduct , which is often used by states to define licensing requirements. APA codes generally set a higher standard than those required by law because they are designed to guide responsible behavior, client protection, and individual, organizational, and community enhancement. This code applies to all applied and applied psychologists.
The code of APA is based on five principles: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence, Fidelity and Responsibility, Integrity, Justice, and Respect for People's Rights and Dignity. Detailed elements address how to resolve ethical issues, competence, human relationships, privacy and confidentiality, advertising, recording, fees, training, research, publications, assessment, and therapy.
In the UK, the British Psychological Society has published a Code of Ethics and Conduct for clinical psychologists. It has four main areas: Rewards, Competencies, Responsibilities, and Integrity. Other European professional organizations have similar codes of conduct and ethics.
Comparison with other mental health professions
Psychiatry
Although clinical psychologists and psychiatrists can be said to share the same fundamental goal - the eradication of mental stress - their training, views, and methodology are often very different. Perhaps the most significant difference is that the psychiatrist is a licensed physician. Thus, psychiatrists often use medical models to assess psychological problems (ie, those treating them seen as patients with illness) and rely on psychotropic drugs as the primary method of dealing with illness - although many also use psychotherapy as well. Psychiatrists and medical psychologists (who are clinical psychologists who are also licensed to prescribe) are able to perform physical examinations, organize and interpret laboratory and EEG tests, and can order brain imaging studies such as CT or CAT, MRI, and PET scanning.
Clinical psychologists generally do not prescribe drugs, although there is a growing movement for psychologists to prescribe privileges. This medical privilege requires additional training and education. To date, medical psychologists may prescribe psychotropic drugs in Guam, Iowa, Idaho, Illinois, New Mexico, Louisiana, Public Health Service, Indian Health Service, and the United States Military.
Counseling psychology
Counselor psychologists underwent the same degree of rigor in the study and used many of the same interventions and tools as clinical psychologists, including psychotherapy and assessment. Traditionally, psychologist counselors help people with what might be considered a normal or moderate psychological problem - such as feelings of anxiety or sadness resulting from major changes or events in life. However, the differences have faded over time, and from counseling psychologists who do not go into academia (which does not involve care or diagnosis), the majority of counseling psychologists treat mental illness with clinical psychologists. Many counseling psychologists also receive specialized training in career assessment, group therapy, and relationship counseling.
Counseling psychology as a field of values ​​of multiculturalism and social advocacy, often stimulating research on multicultural issues. There are fewer graduate counseling psychology programs than those for clinical psychology and they are more often placed in the education department than psychology. Counselor psychologists tend to work more often in university counseling centers than hospitals and private practice for clinical psychologists. However, clinical counseling and psychology can be used in a variety of settings, with large overlap rates (prisons, academies, community mental health, nonprofit organizations, corporations, private practice, hospitals and Veterans Affairs). The difference between the two fields continues to fade.
School psychology
School psychologists are particularly concerned with the academic, social, and emotional well-being of children and youth in the scholastic environment. In England, they are known as "educational psychologists". Like clinical psychologists (and counseling), school psychologists with doctoral degrees are eligible for licensing as a health-care psychologist, and many work in private practice. Unlike clinical psychologists, they receive more training in children's education, development and behavior, and learning psychology. General degree includes Education Specialist (Ed.S.), Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), and Doctor of Education (Ed.D.).
The role of traditional work for school psychologists employed in school environments has focused primarily on the assessment of students to determine their eligibility for special education services in schools, and consult with teachers and other school professionals to design and implement interventions on behalf of students. Other key roles also include offering individual and group therapy with children and their families, designing prevention programs (eg to reduce dropouts), evaluating school programs, and working with teachers and administrators to help maximize the effectiveness of teaching, both in the classroom and systemic.
Social workers provide a variety of services, generally related to social problems, causes, and solutions. With special training, clinical social workers can also provide psychological counseling (in the US and Canada), in addition to more traditional social work. The Master in Social Work in the US is a two-year, sixty-year credit program that includes at least one year's practicum (two years for doctors).
Occupational therapy
Occupational therapy - often abbreviated as OT - is "the use of productive or creative activity in the care or rehabilitation of physically, cognitively or emotionally handicapped people." Most often, occupational therapists work with people with disabilities to enable them to maximize their skills and abilities. Occupational therapists are skilled professionals whose education includes the study of human growth and development with particular emphasis on the physical, emotional, psychological, sociocultural, cognitive and environmental components of disease and injury. They generally work with clinical psychologists in settings such as mental health of inpatients and outpatients, pain management clinics, feeding disorders clinics, and child development services. Support groups use of OT, individual counseling sessions, and activity-based approaches to overcome psychiatric symptoms and maximize function in life activities.
Criticism and controversy
Clinical psychology is a diverse field and there is recurring tension at a level where clinical practice should be limited to care supported by empirical research. Despite some evidence to suggest that all major therapeutic orientations are about the same effectiveness, there is still much debate about the efficacy of different forms of treatment used in clinical psychology.
It has been reported that clinical psychology rarely aligns with client groups and tends to be concerned with ignoring wider economic, political and social imbalances that may not be client responsibility. It has been argued that therapeutic practice must be bound by power inequality, which can be used for good and evil. A critical psychological movement argues that clinical psychology, and other professions that form the "psy complex", often fail to consider or overcome inequalities and power differences and can play a role in social and moral control over misfortunes, aberrations and anxieties.
An October 2009 editorial in the journal Nature shows that a large number of clinical psychological practitioners in the United States consider scientific evidence "less important than their personal - that is, subjective clinical experience."
See also
References
External links
- Academy of Clinical Psychology of America
- American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy
- American Board of Professional Psychology
- The Annual Review of Clinical Psychology
- APA Society of Clinical Psychology (Division 12)
- Career Psychology Blog Articles and other great content about Careers in Psychology
- Association of State and Provincial Psychology Councils (ASPPB)
- Info in psychology forms the US Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics
- Society of International Clinical Psychology
- Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
- NAMI: National Alliance on Mental Illness
- National Mental Health Institute
- Definition of Psychology
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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