Pregnancy is a potential outcome of rape. This has been studied in the context of war, primarily as a tool for genocide, as well as other unrelated contexts, such as rape by strangers, rape by law, incest, and underage pregnancies. The current scientific consensus is that rape is at least as likely to lead to pregnancy as consensual sexual intercourse, with some studies suggesting rape may actually result in higher pregnancy rates than consensual sexual intercourse.
Rape can cause difficulties during and after pregnancy, with potential negative consequences for the victim and the child being produced. Medical care after rape includes testing for, preventing, and managing pregnancy. A woman who becomes pregnant after a rape can face decisions about whether to raise a child, give children for adoption or care for others, or to have an abortion. In some countries where illegal abortion after rape and incest, more than 90% of pregnancies in girls aged 15 years and under are caused by rape by family members.
The false belief that pregnancy can hardly ever result from rape is widespread for centuries. In Europe, from the middle ages through the 18th century one can use a woman's pregnancy as a legal defense to "prove" that she can not rape her, because her pregnancy is considered to mean that she enjoys sex and, therefore, agrees with it. In recent decades, some pro-life organizations and politicians (such as Todd Akin) who opposed legal abortion in rape cases have advanced claims that pregnancy very rarely arises from rape, and the practical relevance of the exceptions to abortion laws is, by therefore, limited or non-existent.
Video Pregnancy from rape
Incidence of pregnancy-rape
Any woman who is able to ovulate may become pregnant after rape by fertile men.
Estimates of the number of pregnancies from rape vary greatly. Recent estimates indicate that rape rape occurs between 25,000 and 32,000 times annually in the US. In a four-year longitudinal study of 4,000 American women, physician Melisa Holmes estimated from her research data that forced sexual intercourse led to more than 32,000 pregnancies in America. State every year. Doctors Felicia H. Stewart and economist James Trussell estimated that 333,000 attacks and rape reported in the US in 1998 caused about 25,000 pregnancies, and up to 22,000 of these pregnancies could be prevented with prompt medical care, such as emergency contraception.
Value
A 1996 study of 44 rape-related pregnancy cases estimated that in the United States, the pregnancy rate was 5.0% per rape among reproductive age victims (ages 12 to 45). A 1987 study also found a 5% pregnancy rate of rape among students aged 18 to 24 in the US. A 2005 study placed a rape-related pregnancy rate of about 3-5%.
A study of Ethiopian teenagers who reported being raped found that 17% later became pregnant, and rape crisis centers in Mexico reported pregnancy rates from rape at 15-18%. The estimate of pregnancy-related rates of rape may be inaccurate because the crime is underreported, so some pregnancies from rape are not recorded as such, or alternately, social pressure can mean some rape is not reported if there is no pregnancy outcome.
Although most studies show that the level of conception independent of whether insemination is due to rape or consensual sex, some analysts have suggested that the level of conception may be higher, or lower, than insemination due to rape.
Psychologist Robert L. Smith states that some studies have reported "unusually high levels of conception after rape". He cites a paper by C.A. Fox and Beatrice Fox, reported that biologist Alan Sterling Parkes speculated in personal correspondence that "there is a high degree of conception in rape, where hormone release, out of fear or anger, can produce reflex ovulation". Smith also quoted veterinary scientist Wolfgang JÃÆ'¶chle, who "proposed the rape could induce ovulation in human females". The literary scholar Jonathan Gottschall and economist Tiffani Gottschall argue in the Natural Nature 2003 article that previous studies of pregnancy-rape statistics are not directly proportional to pregnancy rates of sexual intercourse, since such comparisons are largely unconfirmed for factors, factor. as contraceptive use. Adjusting for these factors, they estimate that rape is about twice as likely to produce a pregnancy (7.98%) as "consensual and no-vaginal sex" (2-4%). They discuss possible explanations and advance the hypothesis that rapists tend to target victims with "high fecundity biological cues" or subtle indications of ovulation.
In contrast, psychologists Tara Chavanne and Gordon Gallup Jr., quoting an unpublished dissertation by Rogel and Morgan, argue that women's adaptation reduces the likelihood of rape during fertility. A 1995 study of women who became pregnant after the rape found that 60% had been impregnated during intercourse. Anthropologist Daniel Fessler denies these findings, saying, "Concept level analysis reveals that the possibility of conception after rape is no different from that of consensual coitus".
The sociobiological theory of rape pregnancy
Sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists have hypothesized that causing pregnancy with rape may be a strategy of mating in humans, as a way for men to ensure their gene survival by passing it on to future generations. Randy Thornhill and Craig T. Palmer are key figures of this hypothesis. They claim that most rape victims are women of childbearing age and many cultures treat rape as a crime against the victim's husband. They claimed that rape victims suffer less emotional stress when they experience more violence, and that married women and women of childbearing age experience greater psychological distress after rape than women, single women or post-menopausal women. The rate of pregnancy-rape is crucial in evaluating these theories, because high or low pregnancy rates of rape will determine whether such adaptations are favored or disliked by natural selection.
Rape of statistics, incest and underage pregnancy
In 1995-96, the journal Family Planning Perspective published a study by the Guttmacher Institute, a research organization and policy on sexual health, about rape by law (intercourse with minors) and the resulting pregnancy. It is interesting in other studies to conclude that "at least half of all babies born to small women are the father of adult men", and that "although a relatively small proportion of children aged 13-14 years have had sexual intercourse, those who being sexually active at an early age is very likely to experience coercive sex: Seventy-four percent of women who have sex before age 14 and 60 percent of those who have sex before age 15 report having had sexual experience forcibly ". Due to the difficulty in bringing the cases to court, however, "data from the period 1975-1978... shows that, on average, only 413 men are arrested each year for rape in California, even though 50,000 pregnancies occur among women below age, 1976 alone ". Under the circumstances, it was found that two-thirds of babies born to school-age mothers were fathers of adult males.
Early sexual abuse can cause young women to feel less control over their sexual lives, reduce their possible future use of contraceptives such as condoms, and increase their chances of becoming pregnant or acquiring sexually transmitted infections. A 2007 paper by Child Trends studied research from 2000 to 2006 to identify links between sexual harassment and teenage pregnancy, beginning with metastudy research Blinn-Pike et al. 2002 from 15 studies since 1989. It was found that childhood sexual abuse has "significant associations" with teenage pregnancies. Direct connections have been shown both by retrospective studies of antecedent checks for reported pregnancies and prospective studies, which track the lives of victims of sexual abuse and "can help to determine causality". More severe forms of abuse, such as rape and incest, have a greater risk of teenage pregnancy. Although some researchers argue that pregnancy may be an option made to avoid "bad situations", pregnancy can also be a "direct result of unwanted sexual relationships", which one study found to be the case for about 13% of participants in Texan parents. program.
In Nicaragua, between 2000 and 2010, about 172,500 births were recorded for girls under 14, representing about 13% of 10.3 million births during the period. This is associated with poverty, the law forbidding abortion due to rape and incest, lack of access to justice, and beliefs held in the culture and legal system. A 1992 study in Peru found that 90% of infants born to mothers aged 12-16 were conceived through rape, usually by fathers, stepfathers, or other close relatives. In 1991 in Costa Rica, the score was similar, with 95% of under-15 mothers becoming pregnant due to rape.
Many of the youngest mothers, documented in history, have prematurely puberty and are infused with rape, including incest. The youngest Lina Medina, Peru, was impregnated when she was four and had a live birth in 1939, at the age of five.
Maps Pregnancy from rape
Rape in the war and conflict
Rape has been used as a weapon of psychological warfare for centuries, to terrorize, humiliate, and damage the enemy's morale. Rape is also used as an ethnic cleansing action to produce babies who share ethnic culprits. Forced pregnancies have been recorded in places including Bangladesh, Darfur, and Bosnia. More broadly, pregnancy is generally the result of wartime rape committed without the intention of impregnating the enemy, as has been found in conflicts in East Timor, Liberia, Kosovo, and Rwanda. Gita Sahgal of Amnesty International commented that, rather than primarily about "spoils of war" or sexual gratification, rape is often used in ethnic conflict as a way for attackers to perpetuate social control and change ethnic boundaries. Children may be born by women and girls who are forced to "marry" the kidnappers and invaders; this occurred in the Indonesian occupation of East Timor and in the conflict of the Lord's Resistance Army in Uganda.
Rape during the war was recognized under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1820 as a war crime and crimes against humanity. "Forced pregnancy" is specifically mentioned as a crime of war and crimes against humanity in the Rome Statute, which is "the first international criminal tribunal to formally criminalize forced pregnancies".
Children born as a result of wartime rape can be identified with the enemy and grow stigmatized and ostracized by their community; they may be denied basic rights or even murdered before they reach adulthood. Children are particularly at risk for such abuse when they look identifiable for sharing their ethnic half with occupation forces, as in the case of half-Arab children of Darfuri women who were raped by janjaweed soldiers as part of the war in Darfur. Children from war rape are also at risk from being neglected by traumatized mothers who can not provide adequate care.
Nanking Rape
In 1937, the Japanese army took over Nanking, which at the time was the capital of China. In a seven-week work known as Nanking Rape, as many as 80,000 people were raped. Chinese women and girls of all ages are raped, mutilated, tortured, enslaved sexually, and killed; it is not known the number of those who are allowed to conceive. Many Nanking women were pregnant suicide in 1938, and others committed infanticide when their baby was born. For the rest of the 20th century there was no record of a Chinese woman who admitted her child had been born as a result of Nanking Rape.
Bosnian War
During the 1992-95 Bosnian War, pregnancy from rape was used to commit genocide. There have been reports of deliberate "rape camps" designed to impregnate captured Muslim and Croatian women. Women are reported to have been held in cage until their pregnancy has passed the stage where abortion will be safe. In the context of a patrilineal society, where children inherit their father's ethnicity, such camps are meant to create a new generation of Serbian children. The women's group Tresnjevka claims that more than 35,000 women and children are being held in camps run by Serbs. Estimates range from 20,000 to 50,000 victims. Feryal Gharahi from Equality Now reports:
- "Families are separated, and women and children are kept in the gym, where all women and girls over the age of ten are raped within the first few days.... There are rape camps across the country, Thousands of women raped and killed Thousands of pregnant women from rape, again and again, wherever I went in Bosnia-Herzegovina and in the Croatian refugee camp, the women told me stories of abominations - kept in a room, raped repeatedly and said they would be held until they gave birth to Serbian children. "
After the Bosnian War, the International Criminal Court updated its laws to prohibit "confined one or more women forced to conceive, with the intention of influencing the ethnic composition of each population".
Treatment and results
The post-rape protocol immediately asked medical professionals to assess the likelihood that a victim would become pregnant in their assessment of the physical damage done to the woman. The protocol for obtaining a history of contraceptive use, as the use of contraceptive pills or other contraceptives before rape affects its chances of conceiving. Treatment protocols also require doctors to provide access to emergency contraception and abortion counseling in countries where it is legal. High-dose estrogen pills were attempted as experimental treatment after rape in the 1960s, and in 1972 Canadian physician A. Albert Yuzpe and his colleagues began a systematic study of the use of ethinylestradiol and norgestrel to provide emergency contraception after the attack. This treatment reduces the pregnancy rate after rape by 84%. This method is now called the Yuzpe regimen. Before being treated with pregnancy prevention measures, a rape victim is given a HCG pregnancy test to determine if she has been pregnant before the rape.
When out of emergency care, doctors provide information about pregnancy as well as other complications such as infections and emotional trauma. While a woman who has been pregnant for the last 48 hours will test negatively for pregnancy in a HCG pregnancy test (unless she is pregnant before the rape), pregnancies resulting from rape can be detected at a two-week follow-up visit.
The decision to terminate a pregnancy related to rape or take it for a certain period of time, and whether to maintain or submit it for adoption can be very traumatic for a woman. The rate of abortion for pregnancy due to rape varies significantly by culture and demography; women living in countries where illegal abortion should often bear children or secretly undergo a dangerous abortion. Some women do not want to have an abortion for religious or cultural reasons. In one-third of cases, pregnancy-related rape is not found until the second trimester of pregnancy, which may reduce women's choice, especially if she does not have easy access to legal abortion or is still recovering from the trauma of the rape itself..
In the United States, 1 percent of the 1,900 women questioned in 1987 cited rape or incest as a reason for abortion; 95 percent mentioned other reasons as well. A 1996 study of thousands of US women showed that, from pregnancies resulting from rape, 50% were canceled, 12% resulted in a miscarriage, and 38% were taken to term and either gave up for adoption or upbringing. The peer-reviewed studies have reported from 38% of American women to 90% of Peruvian teenagers carrying pregnancy into pregnancy. In Lima, Peru, where abortion is illegal, 90% of girls aged 12 to 16 who are pregnant through rape take the child for a certain period of time. Of all children born, 1% is prepared for adoption; the number of children conceived from rape given for adoption was found to be about 6% in one study and 26% in another. When a mother performs neonaticide, killing babies younger than 24 hours, childbirth is the result of rape is the main cause, although other psychological and situational factors are generally present. Some people turn to drugs or alcohol to deal with emotional trauma after rape; This use during pregnancy can harm the fetus.
Rape children
When a mother chooses to raise her child conceived in rape, the traumatic effects of rape and the blood relationship of a child with the rapist have the potential to create some psychological challenges, but the state of conception does not guarantee to cause psychological problems. If a woman decides to save and raise the child, she may have difficulty accepting it, and mother and daughter face ostracism in some societies.
Mothers can also face legal difficulties. In most US states, rapists defend the rights of parents. Research by law scholar Shauna Prewitt shows that the continuing contacts that are generated with rapists are damaging for women who take care of children. He writes in 2012 that in the US, 31 countries allow rapists to demand custody and visitation of children conceived through rape.
History
Children born of rape have been murdered by their mother at various times in history. During ancient and medieval times, the killing of such children was not forbidden (however, the expected penance from these mothers in medieval Europe).
Legal
Unlike the modern scientific consensus that rape-induced pregnancies are no less than others, the belief that rape can not lead to pregnancy is widespread both in legal and medical opinion for centuries. Galen, an ancient Greek physician, believed that a woman should experience the pleasure of releasing "seed" and becoming pregnant, and unable to gain such pleasure from unreasonable sex. Galen's thought influenced the understanding from medieval England to Colonial America.
Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle also believed that women's pleasure plays a central role in conception. Female reproduction, in many ways, is seen through the lens of the male reproductive process, imagining that female organs function as an inverse version of the male organ, and hence orgasm is necessary for conception.
Centuries later, in medieval Europe, the belief that pregnancy can not take place without approval is still standard; in fact, the conception by a woman is considered a legitimate defense against the allegations of rape. The conviction was codified in the medieval English jurisprudence of Fleta and Britton . Britton states:
"If the accused acknowledges the facts, but says that woman at the same time conceived by him, and can prove it, then our will is that he is not convicted of crime, because no woman can conceive if he does not approve."
Medieval literary scholar Corinne Saunders acknowledges the difficulty in determining how widely held is the belief that pregnancy implies consent, but concludes that it affects "at least some judges", citing a 1313 case in Kent.
In the late 1700s, scientists no longer universally accepted the view that pregnancy was impossible without pleasure, although this view is still common. A British text of 1795, Pleas of the Crown, underestimates the usefulness of his biological laws of trust and honesty:
"It has also been said by some people that there was no rape to force a woman who was pregnant at the time, because it said that if she did not agree, she could not get pregnant, but this opinion seemed highly questionable, not just because of previous violence there was no way which is undermined by subsequent approval, but also because, if necessary to show that the woman is not pregnant, the offender can not be tried until the time that may arise whether she does or not, and also because the philosophy of this idea may be highly questionable.
The text of English law 1814 Elements of Medical Jurisprudence by Samuel Farr claims that a "possible" conception can not occur without the "pleasure" of women, so "absolute rape" is unlikely to lead to pregnancy. On the other hand, in the US in the 1820 court case in the Arkansas Region, a man pleaded not guilty to rape charges because the victim was pregnant, but the court rejected the argument:
"The old idea that if a woman is pregnant, it can not be a rape, because she must in the case have agreed, simply explode.Impregnation, it is famous, is not dependent on the consciousness or the will of women.If the uterine organs are in favorable conditions for impregnation, this can happen easily as if the relationship is voluntary. "
Islamic Law
Historian Ian Talbot has written about how countries with Islamic codes based on the Koran about rape and pregnancy use the Sura An-Nur, verse 2, as the legal basis: "The law of evidence in all sexual crimes is required either self-confession or the testimony of four erroneous (false ) of a Muslim male.In the case of a man, self-confession involves verbal recognition.For women, medical examinations and pregnancies arising from rape can be accepted as evidence of self-misconduct. "
Opposition to legal abortion
The pregnancy of rape is a matter of ethics and morals in the context of opposition to legal abortion. In the last few decades, the impossibility of rape-induced pregnancy impossibility, reminiscent of historical beliefs, has begun again to play a role in the political discourse surrounding abortion regulation in rape cases, particularly in the United States.
Among the female victims of spousal violence who filed a protection order, 68% reported that they were raped by their intimate partner and 20% reported pregnancy-related rape.
The claim that rape reduces the likelihood of pregnancy has been done with reference to the fact that chronic stress can reduce the fertility of women in the long run. But the current scientific consensus is that this is especially for long-term stress - acute stress reactions that occur during rape can not "turn off the already started ovulation". In an article in 1972, physician and anti-abortionist Fred Mecklenburg argued that pregnancy from rape was "very rare," adding that a woman exposed to rape trauma "will not ovulate even if she is 'scheduled' for". Blythe Bernhard writes on The Washington Post, "The article has affected two generations of anti-abortion activists in the hope of establishing a medical case to ban all abortions without exception." John C. Willke, former chair of the National Life Rights Committee and a general practitioner with obstetrics training, has published similar statements since 1985. In a 2012 interview he said, "This is a traumatic thing - he, should we say he is tense. He is frightened, taut, etc. And the sperm, if stored in his vagina, is less likely to fertilize, the tube is so spastic. "This statement is denied by some professor of gynecology. A 1997 book published by the Human Life International group (which opposes legal abortion in all cases, including rape) claims that some studies conducted in the 1970s show that only 0.08% of rape results in pregnancy, and alternatives offer estimates 0.8% of the other data. The same book rejects conflicting statistics, claiming that "women who have abortions for 'rape' almost always lie."
Related views have also been expressed by pro-life groups outside the United States. The British pro-life group The Society for the Protection of Unborn Children also claims that rape-pregnancy is "very rare", in part because "traumatic rape makes fertilization difficult or implantation occur". The Irish pro-life group Youth Defense published a claim on its website that "the trauma of rape can bring into play some natural defense mechanisms that reduce the likelihood of pregnancy", but abolished this statement in 2012 after the Akin controversy, explaining that the group now considers them "can not be relied on". The Irish group Precious Life published the claim that "trauma of sexual violence tends to inhibit ovulation" and "the pregnancy rate arising from sexual assault is 0.1%". Other groups who say rape prevents ovulation include the Australian Pro-Life Victoria group, and the Pro-Life Philippines group . The Austrian group Jugend fÃÆ'¼r das Leben (Youth for Life) writes that "pregnancy after rape is extremely rare" because the "mechanism of protection" of rape stress will "almost always prevent conception".
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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